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A  very  stimulating  and  instructive  book  by  the  author  of  "  The  Pictorial 
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CONSISTING  OF  NINE  LETTERS  WRITTEN  IN  FAMILIAR 

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Pictorial  Effect 

IN 

PHOTOGRAPHY. 

BEING 

HINTS    ON    COMPOSITION    AND  CHIARO-OSCURO 
FOR  PHOTOGRAPHERS. 


By  H.   P.  ROBINSON. 


THIRD   AMERICAN  EDITION. 
{By  arrangement  with  the  author.) 

"  As  our  art  is  not  a  divine  gift,  so  neither  is  it  a  mechanical  trade.  Its  found- 
ations are  laid  in  solid  science;  and  practice,  though  essential  to  perfection,  can 
never  attain  to  that  which  it  aims  unless  it  works  under  the  direction  of  principles." 
— Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

"  And,  as  he  goes,  he  marks  how  well  agree 
Nature  and  Arte  in  discord  unity, 
Each  striving  who  should  best  performe  his  part, 
Yet  Arte  now  helping  Nature,  Nature  Arte." Spenser. 


NEW  YORK: 
THE  SCOVILL  &  ADAMS  COMPANY. 

1892. 


Copyrighted  1881. 


TH£  GETTY  C£NTEft 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 


Mr.  Robinson's  first,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  his 
best,  book  on  photographic  art,  has  long  been  a  standard 
work  in  this  country.  Originally  published  in  America 
by  Edward  L.  Wilson,  it  enjoyed  for  many  years  a  large 
sale.  Later  works  by  the  same  author  being  issued  here, 
the  attention  of  photographers  was  more  or  less  with- 
drawn from  Mr.  Robinson's  first  book.  But  recently  a 
growing  demand  for  the  Pictorial  Effect  has  unmis- 
takably evinced  itself,  and  a  new  edition  has,  therefore, 
seemed  to  be  required.  With  these  brief  prefatory  re- 
marks, we  issue  this  new  American  edition  of  Pictorial 
Effect  in  Photography,  containing  all  the  original 
illustrations,  for  the  benefit  of  the  photographic  fraternity 
in  this  country,  confident  that  it  will  meet  with  a  wide 
and  appreciative  reception. 

New  York  City,  January,  1892. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  writing  a  book  for  be- 
ginners in  any  art  is  to  make  it  simple  enough.  Nine  out 
of  ten  photographers  are,  unfortunately,  quite  ignorant  of 
art ;  some  think  manipulation  all-sufficient,  others  are  too 
much  absorbed  in  the  scientific  principles  involved  to  think 
of  making  pictures ;  while  comparatively  a  few  only  have 
regarded  the  science  as  a  means  of  giving  pictorial  embodi- 
ment to  their  ideas.  It  is  for  the  first-mentioned  that  I  have 
dwelt  so  long,  in  Chapters  III,  IV,  and  V,  on  what  may  be 
termed  the  initial  idea  of  composition — Balance  and  Con- 
trast. It  is  denied  by  some  that  art  and  photography  can 
be  combined,  and  these  ridicule  the  idea  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  art  can  be  of  use  to  the  photographer. 
It  is  to  counteract  these  erroneous  notions  that  I  have  in- 
sisted so  strongly  on  the  legitimacy  and  necessity  of  under- 
standing those  guiding  laws  in  composition  and  chiaro-oscuro 
which  must,  in  all  forms  of  art,  be  the  basis  of  pictorial 
effect. 

In  the  choice  of  illustrations,  I  have  selected,  chiefly  from 


vi  PREFACE. 

copies  of  familiar  pictures,  those  by  which  I  could  best  elu- 
cidate a  principle  or  assist  in  the  description  of  a  process, 
rather  than  those  which  may  be  regarded  as  simply  pretty 
pictures. 

For  the  rest,  I  have  aimed  to  make  a  useful,  rather  than 
a  pretentious,  book.  I  believe  it  will  be  an  aid  to  photog- 
raphers, in  which  case  I  am  satisfied  it  must  aid  in  elevating 
an  art  in  which  I  have  a  profound  faith. 

H.  P.  Robinson. 

Tunbridge  Wells. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  Introductory,   1 

II.  The  Faculty  of  Artistic  Sight,   6 

III.  Balance  of  Lines  and  Contrast,  

IV.  Balance — Example,   l9 

V.  Balance — Examples — {continued'),   23 

VI.  Unity,  '   .    .  27 

VII.  Examples — Expression,   32 

VIII.  Practice— The  Choice  of  a  Subject,   38 

IX.  Simple  Rules,   42 

X.  Figures  in  Landscape — Truth,   46 

XL  The  Sky,   49 

XII.  The  Legitimacy  of  Skies  in  Photographs,   53 

XIII.  The  Composition  of  the  Figure,   59 

XIV.  Pyramidal  Forms,   °4 

XV.  Variety  and  Repetition,   68 

XVI.  Variety  and  Repetition  {continued)— Repose— Fitness,    .    .  72 

XVII.  Portraiture,   77 

XVIII.  Portraiture — The  Management  of  the  Sitter,   81 

XIX.  Portraiture— The  Pose,   86 

XX.  Portraiture — Groups — Proportion,   93 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

XXI.  Backgrounds,   99 

XXII.  Accessories,   104 

XXIII.  Some  Old  Notions  Touching  Portraiture,   no 

XXIV.  Chiaro-oscuro,   118 

XXV.  Chiaro-oscuro — Detail  or  Definition,   124 

XXVI.  Chiaro-oscuro — Various  Arrangements  of  Light  and  Shade,  129 

XXVII.  Chiaro-oscuro — Various  Arrangements  of  Light  and  Shade 

{continued),   133 

XXVIII.  Chiaro-oscuro — Breadth,   139 

XXIX.  Chiaro-oscuro — Portraiture — The  Studio,   143 

XXX.  Chiaro-oscuro — General  Considerations,   148 

XXXI.  Conclusion,   154 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  1. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  artist,  like  the  poet,  is 
born,  not  made ;  and,  within  certain  limits,  the  assertion  is 
doubtless  true :  without  a  natural  capacity  for  pictorial  percep- 
tion, no  study  and  no  amount  of  industry  would  produce  an 
artist.  "Patience  and  sand-paper,"  Ruskin  remarks,  "will 
not  make  a  statue.' '  But,  no  matter  how  great  the  natural 
capacity,  or  how  undoubted  the  genius,  certainty  in  excellence, 
and  permanent  success,  cannot  be  attained  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  rules,  and  a  study  of  the  principles,  upon  which 
pictorial  effect  depends.  No  mistake  is  more  fatal  than  a  re- 
liance upon  genius  instead  of  effort,  upon  "inborn  taste"  in- 
stead of  culture  and  the  application  of  recognized  and  certain 
laws. 

In  this  book  I  shall  have  not  a  word  to  say  on  the  poetry  of 
art ;  that  is  a  question  on  which  it  is  difficult  to  write  so  as  to 
be  really  understood  except  by  those  who  have  had  a  long  edu- 
cation in  art.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  what  may  be  called  the 
construction  of  a  picture  :  in  fact,  I  propose  to  deal  with  the 
body,  or  perhaps  the  skeleton,  and  not  the  soul  j  with  the  tangi- 
ble, not  with  the  intangible  ;  with  that  which  can  be  taught, 
not  that  which  must  be  felt.    Neither  shall  I  attempt  to  go 

(1) 


2 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


into  the  extreme  subtleties  of  the  science  of  composition,  which 
only  could  be  of  use  to  painters,  who  have  command  over 
every  line  that  appears  in  their  works.  Photographers,  al- 
though a  wide  scope  for  artistic  effect  is  open  to  them,  have 
not  the  facilities,  which  other  artists  possess,  of  making  ma- 
terial alterations  in  landscapes  and  views  embracing  wide  ex- 
panses, neither  have  they  so  much  power  of  improvement  in 
figure  subjects,  although  much  may  be  done  by  skill  and  judg- 
ment ;  but  they  have  open  to  them  the  possibility  of  modify- 
ing, and,  being  free  agents,  they  have  the  power  of  refusing 
to  delineate,  subjects  which,  by  no  efforts  of  theirs,  will  ever 
make  effective  pictures.  It  is  a  too  common  occurrence  with 
photographers  to  overlook  the  inadaptability  of  a  scene  to 
artistic  treatment,  merely  because  they  think  it  lends  itself  to 
facility,  which  their  art  possesses,  of  rendering,  with  won- 
drous truth,  minutiae  and  unimportant  detail.  To  many  this 
rendering  of  detail,  and  the  obtaining  of  sharp  pictures,  is 
all  that  is  considered  necessary  to  constitute  perfection ;  and 
the  reason  for  this  is,  that  they  have  no  knowledge  of,  and  there- 
fore can  take  no  interest  in,  the  representation  of  Nature  as  she 
presents  herself  to  the  eye  of  a  well-trained  painter,  or  of  one 
who  has  studied  her  with  reverence  and  love. 

It  must  be  confessed,  and  distinctly  understood,  that  photog- 
raphy has  its  limits.  Whilst  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
the  fundamental  laws  of  composition  in  their  entirety,  the  ap- 
plicability of  these  laws  in  photography  is  limited  by  the  com- 
paratively scant  plasticity  of  the  photographer's  tools — light 
as  it  can  be  employed  by  lenses  and  chemicals.  Therefore, 
as  I  proceed  with  the  rules  of  composition  as  far  as  they  have 
been  reduced  to  a  system,  or  rather  a  quasi  system,  it  will  be 
my  aim  to  endeavor  to  indicate  what  can  be  done  by  pho- 
tography, and  how ;  assuming  throughout,  however,  that  the 
student  is  familiar  with  photography  and  the  capability  of  the 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


3 


appliances  at  his  disposal,  asking  him  to  remember  that  great 
technical  knowledge  is  only  a  means  by  which  artistic  power 
can  be  exhibited,  and  not  the  end  and  perfection  of  the  pho- 
tographer's art.*  In  doing  this,  I  shall  bear  in  mind  the 
Italian  proverb,  "He  is  a  fool  who  does  not  profit  by  the  ex- 
perience of  others,"  and  shall  not  hesitate  to  avail  myself  of 
hints  from  any  author  who  contains  ideas  worth  placing  before 
my  reader,  illustrating  my  remarks  with  engravings  from  the 
works  of  well-known  painters,  with  occasional  sketches  of 
photographs  in  which  the  principles  defined  by  the  art  of  com- 
position have  aided  the  photographer  in  his  choice  of  subject, 
in  the  arrangement  of  his  sitter,  or  in  his  management  of  light 
and  shade. 

It  has  been  often  alleged  that,  except  in  its  lowest  phases 
and  in  its  most  limited  degree,  art  can  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  photography,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  must  deal  with 
nature,  either  in  landscape  or  portraiture,  only  in  its  most 
literal  forms ;  whilst  the  essential  province  of  art  is  to  deal 
with  nature  in  the  ideal,  rendering  that  which  it  suggests  as 
well  as  that  which  it  presents,  refining  that  which  is  vulgar, 
avoiding  that  which  is  common-place,  or  transfiguring  and 
glorifying  it  by  poetic  treatment.  Photography,  it  has  been 
said,  can  but  produce  the  aspects  of  nature  as  they  are ;  and 
"  Nature  does  not  compose :  her  beautiful  arrangements  are  but 
accidental  combinations."  But  it  may  be  answered,  that  it  is 
only  the  educated  eye  of  one  familiar  with  the  laws  upon  which 
pictorial  work  depends  who  can  discover  in  nature  these  acci- 
dental beauties,  and  ascertain  in  what  they  consist.  Burnet 
observes,  "  Nature  unveils  herself  only  to  him  who  can  pene- 

*  For  the  technical  part  of  the  art,  the  student  could  have  nothing 
better  than  Captain  Abney's  Instruction  in  Photography  (Piper  &  Carter), 
which  is  written  in  a  clear  and  comprehensive  manner,  with  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  subject  and  the  means  of  teaching  it. 


4  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

trate  her  sacred  haunts.  The  inquiry,  '  What  is  beautiful,  and 
why?'  can  only  be  answered  by  him  who  has  often  asked  the 
question. ' '  The  same  writer,  speaking  of  Turner's  early  efforts, 
describes  them  as  something  like  very  common-place  photo- 
graphs; they  were  water-color  landscapes,  "aspiring  only  to 
topographical  correctness,  the  unadorned  representation  of 
individual  scenes."  It  was  only  subsequent  study,  and  a 
higher  knowledge  of  the  resources  of  art,  which  1 '  gave  him  a 
hint  that  selection  of  a  situation,  and  clothing  it  with  effec- 
tive light  and  shade,  ennobled  the  picture,  and  placed  it  more 
in  the  rank  of  a  composition  than  a  plain  transcript."  The 
same  is  equally  true  of  portraiture.  Although  likeness  is  the 
quality  of  first  importance,  artistic  arrangement  is  scarcely 
second  to  it.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  art  excellence  possesses 
a  wider  and  a  more  permanent  value  than  mere  verisimilitude. 
The  portraits  by  Titian  or  Velasquez  or  Reynolds  live  rather 
as  pictures  than  as  likenesses,  and  the  well-known  Gervartius 
of  Vandyke  in  the  National  Gallery  excites  the  admiration  of 
thousands  who  scarcely  bestow  a  thought  on  the  identity  of 
the  original.  Art-culture,  however,  materially  aids  in  secur- 
ing likeness,  by  teaching  the  eye  rapidly  to  seize  the  salient 
features,  to  determine  the  most  suitable  view,  and  to  arrange 
the  light  so  as  to  bring  out  the  effect  of  character  ;  at  the 
same  time  giving  force  and  prominence  to  natural  advantages, 
and  concealing  or  subduing  natural  defects. 

To  admit  that  photographers  had  no  control  over  their  sub 
jects  would  be  to  deny  that  the  works  of  one  photographer  were 
better  than  another,  which  would  be  untrue.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted by  the  most  determined  opponent  of  photography  as  a 
fine  art,  that  the  same  object  represented  by  different  photog- 
raphers will  produce  different  pictorial  results,  and  this  invaria- 
bly, not  only  because  the  one  man  uses  different  lenses  and  chemi- 
cals to  the  other,  but  because  there  is  something  different  in  each 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  5 

man's  mind,  which,  somehow,  gets  communicated  to  his  fingers' 
ends,  and  thence  to  his  pictures.  This  admitted,  it  easily  follows 
that  original  interpretation  of  nature  is  possible  to  photog- 
raphers— limited,  I  admit,  but  sufficient  to  stamp  the  impress 
of  the  author  on  certain  works,  so  that  they  can  be  as  easily  se- 
lected and  named  by  those  familiar  with  photographs,  as  paint- 
ings are  ascribed  to  their  various  authors  by  those  who  have 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  pictures. 

It  is  of  importance,  at  the  outset,  to  prove  that  superior  re- 
sults are  produced  by  superior  knowledge,  not  only  of  the  use 
of  the  materials  employed  in  photography,  but  by  an  acquaint- 
ance with  art,  or  the  whole  purpose  of  the  present  treatise  falls 
to  the  ground. 

Given  a  certain  object — for  example,  a  ruined  castle — to  be 
photographed  by  several  different  operators;  no  exact  point 
of  sight  shall  be  indicated,  but  the  standpoint  shall  be  limited 
to  a  certain  area.  What  will  be  the  result  ?  Say  there  are  ten 
prints.  One  will  be  so  much  superior  to  the  others  that  you 
would  fancy  the  producer  had  everything — wind,  light,  etc. — 
in  his  favor  ;  while  the  others  will  appear  to  have  suffered 
under  many  disadvantages.  The  best  picture  will  be  found  to 
have  been  taken  by  the  one  in  the  ten  who  has  been  a  student 
of  art.  By  his  choice  of  the  point  of  view,  by  the  placing  of 
a  figure,  by  the  selection  of  the  time  of  day,  or  by  over-exposure 
or  under-development,  or  by  the  reverse,  producing  soft,  deli- 
cate, atmospheric  effects,  or  brilliant  contrasts,  as  may  be  re- 
quired, the  photographer  can  so  render  his  interpretation  of  the 
scene,  either  as  a  dry  matter-of-fact  map  of  the  view,  or  a  trans- 
lation of  the  landscape  so  admirably  suited  to  the  subject,  as 
seen  under  its  best  aspects,  as  to  give  evident  indications  of  what 
is  called  feeling  in  art,  and  which  almost  rises  into  poetry ; 
the  result  often  differing  marvellously  from  the  horrors  perpe- 
trated by  means  of  our  beautiful  art,  in  the  hands  of  those  whose 


6 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


knowledge  of  photography  extends  to  this,  and  this  only— that 
if  a  piece  of  glass  is  prepared,  and  treated  in  a  certain  manner, 
it  will  result  in  the  production  of  an  image  of  the  object  which 
has  been  projected  on  the  screen  of  the  camera  by  the  lens. 

It  is  not  only  the  cultivated  and  critical  eye  that  demands 
good  composition  in  works  of  art,  but  the  ignorant  and  un- 
educated feel  a  pleasure  — of  which  they  do  not  know  the 
cause— in  a  sense  of  fitness  and  symmetry,  balance  and  support. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  FACULTY  OF  ARTISTIC  SIGHT. 

It  is  an  old  canon  of  art,  that  every  scene  worth  painting  must 
have  something  of  the  sublime,  the  beautiful,  or  the  picturesque. 
By  its  nature,  photography  can  make  no  pretensions  to  repre- 
sent the  first ;  but  beauty  can  be  represented  by  its  means,  and 
picturesqueness  has  never  had  so  perfect  an  interpreter.  The 
most  obvious  way  of  meeting  with  picturesque  and  beautiful 
subjects  would  be  the  possession  of  a  knowledge  of  what  is  pic- 
turesque and  beautiful ;  and  this  can  only  be  attained  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  causes  which  produce  these  desirable  qualities. 
He  who  studies  the  various  effects  and  character  of  form,  and 
light  and  shade  (to  a  photographer,  the  addition  of  color  would 
only  be  complication),  and  examines  and  compares  those 
characters  and  effects,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  com- 
bined and  arranged,  both  in  pictures  and  nature,  will  be  better 
qualified  to  discover  and  enjoy  scenery  than  he  to  whom  this 
study  has  never  appeared  necessary,  or  who  looks  at  nature 
alone,  without  having  acquired  any  just  principles  of  selection. 
However  much  a  man  might  love  beautiful  scenery,  his  love 
for  it  would  be  greatly  enhanced,  if  he  looked  at  it  with  the  eye 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  7 

of  an  artist,  and  knew  why  it  was  beautiful.  A  new  world  is 
open  to  him  who  has  learned  to  distinguish  and  feel  the  effect 
of  the  beautiful  and  subtle  harmonies  that  Nature  presents  in 
all  her  varied  aspects. 

Men  usually  see  little  of  what  is  before  their  eyes,  unless  they 
are  trained  to  use  them  in  a  special  manner.  In  Modern 
Painters (yq\.  i.),  Mr.  Ruskin  has  given  a  fine  chapter,  in  which 
he  shows  that  the  truth  of  nature  is  not  to  be  discerned  by  the 
uneducated  senses.  He  says:  "The  first  great  mistake  that 
people  make  in  this  matter,  is  the  supposition  that  they  must 
see  a  thing  if  it  be  before  their  eyes.  They  forget  the  great 
truth  told  them  by  Locke  (book  ii.,  chap.  9,  §  3) :  'This  is 
certain  —  that  whatever  alterations  are  made  in  the  body,  if 
they  reach  not  the  mind,  whatever  impressions  are  made  on  the 
outward  parts,  if  they  are  not  taken  notice  of  within,  there  is 
no  perception.  Fire  may  burn  our  bodies,  with  no  other  effect 
than  it  does  a  billet,  unless  the  motion  be  continued  to  the 
brain,  and  there  the  sense  of  heat  or  idea  of  pain  be  produced 
in  the  mind,  wherein  consists  actual  perception.  How  often 
may  a  man  observe  in  himself,  that  whilst  his  mind  is  intently 
employed  in  the  contemplation  of  some  subjects,  and  curiously 
surveying  some  ideas  that  are  there,  it  takes  no  notice  of  im- 
pressions of  sounding  bodies,  made  upon  the  organ  of  hearing, 
with  the  same  attention  that  uses  to  be  for  the  producing  the 
ideas  of  sound.  A  sufficient  impulse  there  may  be  on  the  or- 
gan, but,  it  not  reaching  the  observation  of  the  mind,  there 
follows  no  perception  j  and  though  the  motion  that  uses  to 
produce  the  idea  of  sound  be  made  in  the  ear,  yet  no  sound  is 
heard.'  And  what  is  here  said,  which  all  must  feel  by  their 
own  experience,  to  be  true,  is  more  remarkably  and  necessarily 
the  case  with  sight  than  with  any  other  of  the  senses,  for  this 
reason  —  that  the  ear  is  not  accustomed  to  exercise  constantly 
its  functions  of  hearing ;  it  is  accustomed  to  stillness,  and  the 


8  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

occurrence  of  a  sound  of  any  kind  whatsoever  is  apt  to  awake 
attention,  and  be  followed  with  perception,  in  proportion  to 
the  degree  of  sound  ;  but  the  eye,  during  our  waking  hours,  ex- 
ercises constantly  its  function  of  seeing ;  it  is  its  constant  habit ; 
we  always,  as  far  as  the  bodily  organ  is  concerned,  see  some- 
thing, and  we  always  see  in  the  same  degree ;  so  that  the  oc- 
currence of  sight,  as  such,  to  the  eye,  is  only  the  continuance 
of  its  necessary  state  of  action,  and  awakes  no  attention  what- 
soever, except  by  the  particular  nature  and  quality  of  the  sight. 
And  thus,  unless  the  minds  of  men  are  particularly  directed  to 
the  impressions  of  sight,  objects  pass  perpetually  before  the  eyes 
without  conveying  any  impression  to  the  brain  at  all,  and  so 
pass  actually  unseen;  not  merely  unnoticed,  but,  in  the  full, 
clear  sense  of  the  word,  unseen.  And  numbers  of  men  being 
preoccupied  with  business  or  care  of  some  description,  totally 
unconnected  with  the  impressions  of  sight,  such  is  actually  the 
case  with  them  ;  they  receiving  from  nature  only  the  inevitable 
sensations  of  blueness,  redness,  darkness,  light,  etc.,  and,  ex- 
cept at  particular  and  rare  moments,  no  more  whatsoever." 

Not  only  to  the  artist,  but  to  all  students  of  the  sciences 
which  relate  to  the  outward  aspects  of  nature,  comes  a  more 
vivid  enjoyment  than  to  him  who,  because  he  knows  not  how 
to  direct  his  attention,  looks,  but  sees  not.  The  botanist  de- 
tects beauties  in  weeds,  unseen  and  trodden  down  by  others ; 
the  entomologist  finds  unsuspected  wonders  in  every  grub  that 
crawls,  and  every  moth  that  flies  ;  the  geologist  discovers  how 
worlds  were  made  in  the  stones  over  which  he  stumbles  in  his 
walk. 

Take  an  illustration  of  how  much  more  an  acute  observer  of 
nature  must  enjoy  than  the  dull  man  who  jogs  on  through  the 
world  with  his  eyes  open,  but  his  mind  blind.  Can  it  be  doubted 
that  Shakespeare  more  infinitely  enjoyed  the  amusement  he 
derived  from  the  study  of  character  than  common  observers  ? 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  9 

Combinations  of  incidents  and  characters  must  have  struck  him 
much  more  forcibly,  and  must  have  afforded  him  keener  enjoy- 
ment than  they  would  those  who  had  not  the  capacity  of  seeing 
and  appreciating  the  humors  of  the  times  in  which  they  lived. 
His  works  point  out  to  us  many  scenes  that  would  escape  us  in 
real  life.  So  also  the  trained  artist  will  discover  and  reveal 
beauties  that  others  pass  by  without  notice,  in  our  walks  abroad 
and  in  our  every-day  existence.  How  often  does  it  happen 
that  a  photographer  will  take  his  camera  and  dozen  dry  plates 
to  a  district  he  has  been  recommended  to  visit  because  it  con- 
tains so  many  picturesque  objects  and  artistic  bits,  and  has  re- 
turned at  night,  unsatisfied  and  gloomy,  with  "  no  game  in  his 
bag,"  declaring  the  place  dull  and  uninteresting,  without  a 
single  object  worthy  of  his  attention?  Again,  another  pho- 
tographer, who,  like  Beatrice,  "  can  see  a  church  by  daylight," 
but  little  else,  will  walk  through  the  land  photographing  every 
object,  so  that  it  is  an  object  he  meets  with.  But,  then,  what 
he  means  by  an  object  is  something  very  definite ;  it  must  be 
a  castle  or  abbey,  a  stone  cross  or  mansion  —  something  you 
can  "put  a  name  to."  It  is  of  no  consequence  to  this  collector 
of  negatives  whether  his  subject  has  anything  in  it  capable  of 
artistic  treatment,  whether  a  few  yards  to  the  right  or  left  would 
improve  the  effect,  or  whether  a  little  more  sky  or  a  little  more 
foreground  would  increase  or  diminish  the  apparent  size  of  the 
subject  he  is  about  to  secure ;  his  only  anxiety  is  that  the  house 
or  castle  he  is  photographing  shall  come  in  the  middle  of  his 
plate,  and  that  nothing  shall  come  in  the  way  of  his  getting  a 
good  plan  of  its  elevation.  This  is  no  fanciful  picture  I  am 
sketching,  but  I  have  so  many  originals  for  it  in  my  mind's 
eye  that  it  can  scarcely  be  called  the  portrait  of  an  individual. 
Yet  another  photographer  will  scarcely  care  where  he  goes ;  he 
has  learned  to  select,  and  finds  pictures  everywhere.  He  does 
not  do  this  by  instinct  or  any  inborn  faculty :  he  has  had  to 


10  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

acquire  his  knowledge ;  he  has  learned  to  know  what  he  wants, 
and  picks  it  up  the  moment  it  is  before  him — he  has  learned  to 
see.  It  must  not  be  inferred,  from  what  I  have  just  said,  that 
because  art  has  to  be  learned,  I  consider  it  possible  for  all  to 
learn  alike :  the  capacity  for  acquiring  knowledge  is  not  given 
equally  to  all.  It  is  not  possible  for  one  in  a  thousand  to  at- 
tain a  perfect  knowledge  of  art ;  but  it  is  certain  that  all,  es- 
pecially those  whose  instincts  have  turned  them  to  a  kindred 
study  like  photography,  may  learn  sufficient  to  save  them  from 
making  any  very  serious  blunders  in  their  works.  All  men 
have  to  learn.  "  Art,"  as  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  has  said,  "  is 
not  a  divine  gift."  The  power  of  acquiring  it  perfectly  un- 
doubtedly is. 

These  observations  may  appear  dull  to  the  student  who  is 
anxious  to  get  to  the  practical  details  of  composition,  but  they 
are  the  keynote  of  all  I  have  to  say  in  future  chapters.  I  wish 
to  show  that  it  is  the  photographer's  business  to  see  ;  to  do 
which  he  must  learn  to  see,  that  by  seeing  he  may  appreciate, 
and  that  the  power  of  artistic  sight  may  be,  as  it  were,  artifi- 
cially cultivated  by  the  study  of  those  rules  and  axioms  which 
have  guided  the  greatest  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects  in 
the  production  of  their  finest  works. 

But,  before  I  proceed,  I  must  warn  you  against  a  too  close 
study  of  art  to  the  exclusion  of  nature,  and  the  suppression  of 
original  thought.  Whoever  studies  art  alone  will  have  a  narrow, 
pedantic  manner  of  considering  all  subjects,  and  of  referring 
them  to  this  or  that  style  of  composition,  or  this  or  that  order 
of  picture.  This  class  of  student  looks  at  nature  only  through 
the  medium  of  famous  painters'  pictures :  a  calm  sunset  is 
always  a  Claude ;  anything  wild  or  confused  is  Turneresque, 
in  his  last  period  (it  shows  knowledge  to  speak  of  the  "  periods ' ' 
of  a  master).  "  What  a  delicious  Wilson  or  Ruysdael !  "  one 
will  say  as  he  looks  at  a  waterfall  \  "  Quite  a  Landseer  !  "  an- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  11 

other  will  exclaim  at  the  sight  of  a  sheep-dog  or  deer-hound ; 
and  so  on.  Nature  can  only  remind  them  of  some  class  of  pic- 
ture. This  is  a  perversion  of  study,  and  tends  to  degrade  Na- 
ture to  the  level  of  her  imitators,  instead  of  assisting  to  elevate 
her  students  to  the  level  of  the  humble  distance  from  her  per- 
fections to  which  it  is  possible  to  artists  to  attain.  What  I  want 
here  to  impress  is,  that  art  should  be  a  guide  only  to  the  study 
of  nature,  and  not  a  set  of  fetters  to  confine  the  ideas,  or  to 
depress  the  faculty  of  original  interpretation  in  the  artist, 
whether  he  be  painter  or  photographer ;  and  a  knowledge  of 
the  technicalities  of  art  will  be  found  the  best  guide. 

There  is  a  tendency  amongst  young  artists  to  despise  rules, 
and  to  trust  to  instinct  and  a  feeling  for  art ;  but  it  is  not  only 
well  to  do  right,  even  if  that  were  possible,  by  instinct  alone, 
but  it  is  also  pleasant  to  know  you  are  doing  right ;  and,  al- 
though it  is  not  well  to  curb  rising  genius,  a  knowledge  of 
principles  which,  from  their  universal  adoption  for  ages,  must 
be  sound,  must  be  an  addition  to  the  powers  an  artist,  in  what- 
ever material,  has  to  bring  on  his  subject.  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, in  his  sixth  discourse,  has  some  excellent  remarks  on 
this  subject,  which  are  much  more  forcible  than  anything  I 
could  hope  to  say  myself. 

"It  must  of  necessity  be,  that  even  works  of  genius,  like 
every  other  effect,  as  they  must  have  their  cause,  must  likewise 
have  their  rules ;  it  cannot  be  by  chance  that  excellencies  are 
produced  with  any  constancy  or  any  certainty,  for  this  is  not 
the  nature  of  chance  ;  but  the  rules  by  which  men  of  extraor- 
dinary parts,  and  such  as  are  called  men  of  genius,  work,  are 
either  such  as  they  discover  by  their  own  peculiar  observations, 
or  of  such  a  nice  texture  as  not  easily  to  admit  being  expressed 
in  words,  especially  as  artists  are  not  very  frequently  skilful 
in  that  mode  of  communicating  ideas.  Unsubstantial,  how- 
ever, as  these  rules  may  seem,  and  difficult  as  it  may  be  to 


12  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

convey  them  in  writing,  they  are  still  seen  and  felt  in  the 
mind  of  the  artist ;  and  he  works  from  them  with  as  much 
certainty  as  if  they  were  embodied,  as  I  may  say,  upon  paper. 
It  is  true  these  refined  principles  cannot  be  always  made  pal- 
pable, yet  it  does  not  follow  but  that  the  mind  may  be  put  in 
such  a  train  that  it  shall  perceive,  by  a  kind  of  scientific  sense, 
that  propriety  which  words,  particularly  words  of  unpractised 
writers  such  as  we  are,  can  but  very  feebly  suggest." 

Having  endeavored  to  show  that  the  faculty  of  artistic  sight 
does  not  come  by  nature,  but  that  it  is  a  cultivated  sense,  I 
shall  aim,  in  succeeding  chapters,  to  become  more  specifically 
practical,  and  endeavor  to  give  you  some  ideas  of  those  forms 
of  lines,  and  of  masses  of  light  and  shadow,  that  constitute 
composition  in  art.  These  forms,  which  produce  balance, 
unity,  and  harmony,  may  often  seem  intangible,  and  the 
student  may  be  tempted  to  ask 

"  If  shape  it  might  be  called,  that  shape  had  none 
Distinguishable  in  member,  joint,  or  limb, 
Or  substance  might  be  called  that  shadow  seemed, 
For  each  seemed  either?  " 

But,  to  the  instructed  eye,  each  intangible  line  and  light 
and  shadow  plays  its  definite  part  in  forming  a  perfect  com- 
position. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  13 


CHAPTER  III. 

BALANCE  OF  LINES  AND  CONTRAST. 

Composition  in  art  may  be  said  to  consist  of  the  selection, 
arrangement,  and  combination  in  a  picture  of  the  objects  to 
be  delineated,  so  as  to  produce  an  agreeable  presentation  of 
forms  and  tones,  to  tell  the  story  which  is  to  be  elucidated, 
and  to  embody  the  spirit  of  what  it  is  intended  the  picture 
shall  represent  or  suggest.  The  principal  objects  to  be  sought 
are  harmony  and  unity,  so  set  forth  that  pleasure  may  be  given 
to  the  eye  without  any  sacrifice  of  the  truth  of  nature.  By 
the  preservation  of  a  harmonious  balance  of  lines,  and  light 
and  shade,  several  objects  are  attained.  The  first  and 
simplest  result  is  the  production  of  pictorial  effect,  which 
satisfies  the  eye  without  reference  to  the  meaning  or  intention 
of  the  picture.  But  a  higher  purpose  is  also  served.  The 
preservation  of  harmony  necessarily  involves  the  idea  of  sub- 
ordination, or  a  consideration  of  the  relative  importance  of 
all  the  parts  of  the  picture,  the  principal  objects  being  made 
prominent,  and  the  minor  objects  made  auxiliary  to  that  prom- 
inence by  the  arrangement  of  lines  and  masses  of  light  and 
shade  By  a  proper  distribution  and  balance  of  these,  the 
principal  objects  in  the  picture  will  be  brought  prominently 
forward,  and  those  of  less  consequence  will  retire  from  the 
eye,  and  will  support  or  act  as  a  foil  to  the  chief  objects  of  in- 
terest. As  the  quaint  old  writer  on  art,  Lairesse,  recommends, 
"Let  the  king  or  prince  have  the  first  place,  and  next  his  ret- 
inue or  other  proper  persons ;  if  there  be  yet  another  party  to 
be  introduced  of  lesser  moment  than  these,  and  yet  essential 


14  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


to  the  composition,  put  them  in  the  shade  without  more  ado." 
In  short,  the  grand  fundamental  laws  of  composition  may  be 
summed  up  very  briefly.  They  are  unity,  balance,  and  the 
adaptability  of  the  whole  to  breadth  of  light  and  shade,  by 
which  the  principal  object  in  a  picture — such,  for  instance,  as 
the  head  in  a  portrait — is  brought  forward  most  prominently, 
yet  united  with  the  other  parts  so  that  the  eye  may  first  see 
the  point  of  chief  interest,  and  be  gradually  and  agreeably  led 
over  the  picture.  In  addition  to  the  above  primary  necessi- 
ties in  composition,  there  are  many  subdivisions  belonging  to 
harmony — such  as  repose,  unity,  subordination,  repetition, 
variety,  etc. — which  will  be  treated  of  in  their  place,  after  the 
broad  principles  have  been  clearly  understood. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  pictures  of  all  artists  who  have 
lived  during  the  last  three  centuries — or,  at  least,  all  those 
pictures  that  have  come  down  to  us — appear  to  have  been  de- 
signed on  some  fixed  principle ;  and  from  a  consideration  of 
the  best  works  of  the  great  masters  it  has  been  found  that  the 
most  pleasing  and  agreeable  compositions  are  formed,  more 
or  less,  on  the  leading  idea  of  the  triangle  or  pyramid,  the 
diagonal  line  and  its  contrasts  (which  is  a  variation  of  the 
same  thing),  and  the  circle,  with  its  various  modifications. 
From  a  study  of  these  facts,  Burnet  and  other  writers  on  the 
subject  have  divided  the  art  of  composition  into  angular  and 
circular,  whilst  many  of  the  finest  examples  are  a  combination 
of  both  forms. 

As  being  of  the  first  importance,  and  constituting,  in  fact, 
che  skeleton  on  which  all  other  parts  of  this  subject  hang,  it 
will  be  well  to  first  call  the  student's  attention  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  balance  of  lines. 

All  lines  should  be  balanced  or  compensated.  Without  a 
due  regard  to  this  important  quality,  a  picture  would  appear 
ready  to  fall  to  pieces. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


15 


Example.  Lines  running  in  one  direction,  whether  parallel 
or  not,  would  give  a  weak  and  awkward  appearance.  A  sense 
of  falling  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  lines  repeating  each  other 

thus  y^^^^  When  lines  of  this  character  occur,  it  will 

always  be  found  possible  to  produce  compensating  lines  in  other 
parts  of  the  picture  thus  y//  ^  or,  if  lines  run  diagonally 

A 


down  a  picture,thus 


:  a  compensation  for 


the  lines  a  is  found  in  the  line  b.  There  are  many 
other  ways  in  which  oblique  lines  may  be  compensated, 
in  a  great  measure  depending  on  the  ingenuity  and  skill 
of  the  artist.    Here  is  an  example  in  a  portrait  (Fig.  i) : 


Fig. 1. 


A  girl  kneeling  on  a  prie-dieu  chair  is  reading  a  book  placed 
on  the  back,  which  faces  the  spectator.  The  lines  of  the  head 
and  shoulders  above  the  chair  are  perfectly  compensated  by 
the  line  of  the  arm,  which  runs  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  but 
the  lines  of  the  chair,  a  and  b,  and  of  the  dress,  c,  running 
in  nearly  the  same  inclined  direction,  would  have  given  the 
effect  of  insecurity  to  the  figure,  and  it  would  be  painfully 


16  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

felt  that  the  girl  and  chair  would  topple  over,  which  would 
not  have  a  pleasant  effect.  To  counteract  this  sense  of  dan- 
ger, the  lines  a,  b,  and  c  have  been  balanced  by  the  line  of 
the  drapery  D ;  and,  this  not  being  sufficient,  the  table,  e, 
has  been  introduced,  while  the  dark  spot  caused  by  the  book 
also  helps  to  support  the  composition,  as  will  be  further  ex- 
plained in  this  chapter.  This  example  is  taken  from  an  actual 
photograph,  and  shows,  as  I  hope  to  show  by  other  sketches 
also  taken  from  photographs,  how  it  is  possible  for  the  pho- 
tographer to  apply  these  rules  to  his  art. 

Sometimes  the  repetition  of  lines  without  balance  is  useful. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  Frost's  picture 
of  Sabrina  and  her  attendant  nymphs  descending  to  the  halls 
of  Nereus,  engraved  and  published  by  the  Art  Union  some 
years  ago,  and  already  familiar  or  readily  accessible  to  the  stu- 
dent. In  this  picture  all  balance  of  lines  and  equilibrium  of 
base  have  been  purposely  omitted,  and  the  figures  appear  to 
descend  through  the  water — an  effect  necessary  to  the  story. 

It  may  be  said,  that  as  diagonal  or  pyramidal  lines  require 
compensating,  why  use  them  ?  Why  not  use  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  lines  ?  To  which  it  may  be  answered,  that  there 
is  not  sufficient  variety  in  the  last-mentioned  lines ;  a  square 
is  much  less  picturesque  than  a  pyramidal  form,  as  may  be 
seen  by  comparison  of  a  modern  house  of  square  elevation 
with  a  Gothic  church  and  spire.  Besides,  Nature  never  com- 
poses  in  squares  ;  even  the  horizontal  line  of  the  sea  is  broken 
by  the  lines  of  the  clouds  and  the  waves,  and  that  of  the  plain 
by  trees,  uplands,  and  mountains.  Again,  a  row  of  standing 
figures,  all  of  the  same  height,  although  it  is  often  to  be 
found  in  photographs,  is  eminently  monotonous  and  dis- 
agreeable, and  the  very  fact  that  groups  of  figures  are  so  often 
photographed  in  this  manner  shows  the  necessity  for  this 
work. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

17 

The  diagonal  line  (Fig.  2)  is  very  suitable  in  the  composi- 
tion of  landscape ;  it  lends  itself  so  admirably  to  the  receding 
lines  of  perspective. 

j 

Fig.  2. 

Nearly  allied  to  balance  of  lines  is  contrast,  which  may  be 
described  as  the  opposing  of  things  of  different  aspect  to  each 

Fig.  3. 

other  so  as  to  bring  out  the  fullest  and  best  effect  of  each ; 
such  as  the  position  and  variety  of  heads,  youth  and  age, 

2 

18  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


light  and  shade,  etc.  Indeed,  contrast  sometimes  supplies 
the  place  of  balance,  as  in  the  sketch  (Fig.  3),  which  shows 
the  leading  features  of  a  photograph  where  the  darkest  spot — 
the  boat — is  opposed  to  the  highest  light,  and,  being  the 
nearest  object,  is  opposed  to  the  most  distant,  thus  giving 
effect  to  each  other,  and,  being  also  at  the  base  of  the  angle, 
supports  the  whole,  and  acts  as  a  kind  of  a  key-note  to  the 
entire  frame-work  of  the  composition.  This  form  of  compo- 
sition, with  the  endless  variations  of  which  it  is  capable,  is 
most  valuable  to  the  landscape  photographer. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  I  must  remind  the  student  that, 
in  following  up  the  above  hints  in  his  pictures,  he  must  not 
allow  the  art  to  become  too  evident,  the  effect  of  which  would 
be  painful.  Just  as  the  conversation  of  a  very  learned  person 
is  sometimes  dull,  so  would  his  work  be  if  the  student  made 
too  great  an  effort  to  show  his  knowledge.  He  must  not 
leave  room  for  the  critic  to  say — 

"  Nature  in  him  was  almost  lost  in  art." 

The  axiom  that  those  who  use  most  art  betray  the  least,  is,  to 
a  certain  extent,  true  enough ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  too 
great  an  effort  to  conceal  the  art  might  lead  to  weakness,  and 
destroy  simplicity  and  character.  That  which  hits  the  happy 
medium  will  be  the  greatest  success. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  19 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BALANCE. — "  EXAMPLE." 

"  Because  things  seen  are  mightier  than  things  heard,"  to 
quote  Tennyson,  and  because  an  actual  example  visible  to  the 
eye  is  better  than  pages  of  written  words,  I  propose  in  this 
chapter  to  give  a  slight  illustration  how  an  artist,  even  in  such 
a  trivial  sketch  as  the  subject  engraved  on  the  next  page,  con- 
forms to  the  usages  of  art,  and  the  value  which  his  work  gains 
by  such  treatment.  I  take  this  subject  because  it  follows  and 
illustrates  the  rule  of  balance  given  in  the  last  chapter. 

The  two  engravings  represent  the  same  subject — Windsor 
Castle — and  are  identical,  with  the  exception  that  the  sharp 
spots  of  black — the  boat  in  the  river,  and  the  bit  of  bank  and 
tree — which  appear  in  the  one  are  removed  in  the  other.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  diagonal  line  starting  in  the  lower 
left-hand  corner,  following  the  tops  of  the  tall  chimney  and 
the  distant  towers,  runs  up  to  the  flagstaff,  from  whence  the 
eye  is  carried  across  the  picture  by  the  little  white  cloud  over 
the  chapel,  thus  completing  the  diagonal  line  given  in  the 
last  chapter  (page  1 7).  By  a  comparison  of  the  two,  the  value 
of  the  small  points  of  extreme  dark  at  the  lower  point  of  the 
angle  formed  by  the  perspective  lines  of  the  castle  and  the 
river  will  be  at  once  felt.  In  Fig.  5,  from  which  the  balance 
supplied  by  the  boat  and  bank  with  the  tree  has  been  removed, 
the  castle  appears  to  have  nothing  to  stand  upon,  no  solid 
foundation.  The  lines  running  to  a  point  in  the  distance  ap- 
pear to  want  collecting  together  and  regulating ;  the  distance 


20  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Fig.  5. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  21 

itself  comes  forward  into  the  foreground,  and  parts  do  not 
take  their  proper  relation  to  one  another.  In  Fig.  4,  where 
the  spots  of  black,  or  key-note,  are  supplied,  everything  falls 
into  its  proper  place,  and  there  is  a  sense  of  completeness 
which  Fig.  5  lacks.  The  most  eminent  painters  of  landscape 
have  adopted  this  form  of  composition.  Cuyp,  who  generally 
painted  sunrises  or  sunsets,  almost  invariably  adopted  this  ar- 
rangement ;  and  in  his  pictures,  the  point  of  dark  being  placed 
near  to  and  opposed  to  the  point  of  greatest  illumination, 
gives  extreme  value  to  his  highest  lights.  The  same  method 
is  almost  invariably  found  in  the  landscapes  of  the  Dutch 
school.  In  Turner's  magnificent  pictures  of  sea  and  sky,  the 
wonderful  luminosity  is,  in  a  great  measure,  due  to  the  dark- 
est black  being  opposed  to  the  highest  light. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  point  of  dark  should  consist  of 
one  object  only ;  it  is  sometimes  convenient  to  introduce  a 
group  of  figures  or  a  mass  of  rock ;  but  it  must  always  be  re- 
membered that  a  judiciously  placed  mass  of  dark  in  the  fore- 
ground not  only  gives  balance  to  the  composition,  but  also 
increases  the  effect  of  the  gradations  of  the  middle  and  ex- 
treme distances. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  because  I  have  spoken  of  a  point 
of  dark  in  the  foreground,  that  this  is  the  only  possible  form 
in  which  a  landscape  should  be  composed.  The  principle 
may  be  applied  in  exactly  the  opposite  manner :  light  may 
take  the  place  of  shade,  and  perform  the  same  function.  The 
picture  may  be  generally  dark,  with  a  mass  of  light  in  the 
foreground  by  way  of  balance.  For  instance,  the  picture  of 
a  dark,  gloomy  castle  may  be  relieved  by  a  flood  of  light  in 
the  immediate  foreground,  breaking  up  and  enlivening  the 
otherwise  monotonous  shadow.  Neither  is  it  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  landscape  should  rigidly  follow  the  diagonal 
line  j  there  are  endless  variations  of  the  principle  ;  but  I  give 


22  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

this,  the  plainest  and  most  obvious  of  all  the  rules  of  com- 
position, first,  because  it  is  a  key  which,  once  mastered,  will 
enable  the  student  to  unlock  the  secrets  of  the  most  compli- 
cated designs,  and  render  his  future  studies  easy. 

As  I  proceed  with  my  subject,  I  foresee  that  a  little  difficulty 
may  possibly  arise.  The  chief  danger  I  appear  to  incur  in 
writing  definitely,  is  that  of  being  mistaken  when  I  describe 
all  pictures  as  composed  in  regular  shapes,  such  as  the  diagonal, 
pyramidal,  circular,  and  similar  forms ;  but  it  is  only  by  this 
means  that  I  am  able  to  put  anything  tangible  before  the 
student,  who,  when  he  is  sufficiently  acquainted  with  formulae, 
and  knows  how  to  classify  and  combine  them,  may  experi- 
ment with  originality  of  composition  upon  his  own  account. 
As  I  said  at  the  outset,  rules  are  not  intended  as  a  set  of  fet- 
ters to  cripple  those  who  use  them,  and  it  is  not  intended  that 
the  student  should  absolutely  abide  by  them.  The  object  is 
to  train  his  mind  so  that  he  may  select  with  ease,  and,  when 
he  does  select,  know  why  one  aspect  of  a  subject  is  better 
than  another.  To  some  readers  it  may  appear  superfluous  to 
thus  look  upon  nature  as  a  thing  to  be  arranged  before  any 
satisfaction  can  be  derived  from  its  contemplation,  or  from 
its  representation  ;  but  when  the  student  begins  to  analyze  the 
cause  of  the  beautiful  and  pleasing  effect  of  some  pictures,  ; 
and  the  disagreeable  effect  of  others,  equally  perfect  as  far  as 
finish  and  manipulation  are  concerned,  he  will  find  that  he 
can  assign  the  reason  to  some  agreement  or  disagreement  with 
the  rules  of  art,  however  remote. 

An  attention  to  rules  will  assist  the  artist  in  keeping  his 
picture  in  tune.  The  small  mass  of  dark  or  light,  whichever 
it  may  by,  in  the  near  parts  of  a  landscape,  acts  as  a  sort  of 
a  key-note,  as  I  have  already  said,  and  the  pleasure  good  com- 
position gives  to  the  educated  eye  is  not  unlike  that  the  ear 
derives  from  perfect  harmonies  in  music  ;  and  if  the  arrange* 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  23 

merit  of  a  picture  is  not  obvious  at  a  glance,  if  that  which  is 
equivalent  to  melody  does  not  strike  the  eye  at  once,  rely  upon 
it,  that  if  the  picture  is  pleasing,  the  composition  is  there,  al- 
though it  may  be  in  a  minor  key.  As  music  is  only  sound 
under  governance  of  certain  laws,  so  is  pictorial  effect  only 
the  combination  of  certain  forms  and  lights  and  shadows  in 
like  manner  harmoniously  brought  together. 

The  moral  to  the  landscape  photographer  is,  that  in  many 
cases  he  must  endeavor  to  obtain  in  his  foreground  some  ob- 
ject, or  mass  of  objects,  that  will  act  as  a  key-note  to  keep  the 
whole  in  harmony;  and  if  nature  does  not  supply  such  object, 
the  pictorial  requirement  may  often,  without  violating  ma- 
terial truth,  be  furnished  by  art.  On  this  point  more  in 
another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V. 
balance. — "  examples  " — continued. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  ruling  point  should  be  absolutely 
at  the  side  of  the  picture,  and  under  the  extreme  distance.  It 
will  be  found,  by  an  examination  of  the  best  landscapes,  to 
vary  very  considerably  ;  but,  if  it  be  an  important  object,  it 
will  never  be  found  exactly  in  the  centre,  or  under,  or  in  a 
line  with  any  other  important  or  prominent  form  of  the  same 
size  or  character. 

I  take  for  illustration  a  scene,  the  construction  of  which 
the  student  will  be  able  to  perceive  for  himself.  He  will 
notice  that  it  is  diagonal  in  form,  and  that  the  balance  is 
preserved  by  the  trees.  He  will  also  notice  that  the  masses 
produced  by  the  principal  objects  are  repeated  by  others,  and 
the  buildings  are  echoed  by  the  distant  mountains. 


24  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

In  teaching  any  art,  it  is  always  well  to  point  out  not  only 
|  what  to  do,  but  also  what  not  to  do,  and  there  is  a  slight  ex- 
ample of  what  to  avoid  here.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  clouds 
follow  the  shape  of  the  upper  hills,  and  the  latter  partly  repeat 
the  buildings.  Now,  repetition  is  a  valuable  quality  in  art,  as 
we  shall  see  further  on,  and  helps  to  give  one  part  of  a  picture 
I  -relation  to  the  other  parts;  but  repetition  should  consist  of 
a  faint  echo,  and  not  of  exact  imitation  of  lines,  or  forms,  or 
tones ;  this  would  look  too  much  like  artifice,  even  if  agree-  . 
able  to  the  eye,  which  it  would  not  be,  and  art,  however  much 
it  may  regulate  the  representation  of  nature,  should  never 
make  nature  look  artificial. 


Fig.  6. 


Having,  I  hope,  carried  the  student  with  me  so  far,  I  should 
advise  him,  at  this  point,  to  study  good  pictures  and  engravings, 
and,  analyzing  them  for  himself,  see  how  far  the  simple  rule — 
beyond  which  we  have  not  yet  got — of  a  small  spot  of  dark,  or 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  25 

an  opposing  line,  acting  as  a  balance  to  the  whole,  has  been 
observed,  especially  in  representations  of  landscape.  I  venture 
to  assert  that  if  he  does  this  appreciatively  for  the  first  time,  he 
will  be  astonished  at  the  regularity  and  frequency  with  which 
this  principle  is  observed.  A  study  of  pictures  at  the  present 
stage  will  have  a  better  effect  on  the  student  than  a  study  of 
nature,  which  could,  without  guidance,  only  produce  in  him 
a  vague  and  unsettled  taste.  The  study  of  pictures  will  make 
him  acquainted  with  the  methods  by  which  they  were  pro- 
duced, and  guide  him,  by  means  of  the  general  heads  of 
composition,  in  his  search  for  the  numberless,  and  hitherto 
unperceived,  beauties  in  nature.  Taking  the  best-known  col- 
lection of  landscapes  that  occurs  to  my  mind  at  the  present 
moment,  and,  at  the  same  time,  that  of  the  greatest  excel- 
lence, and  because  they  are  by  a  man  whose  genius  was  suffi- 
cient to  carry  him  above  and  beyond  all  rules,  if  he  had 
thought  it  right  to  reject  rules,  I  would  recommend  the 
student  to  go  to  the  National  Gallery,  and  make  a  careful 
examination  of  the  Turner  collection ;  or,  if  he  is  not  able  to 
see  the  original  paintings,  let  him  look  through  the  volumes 
of  the  Art  Journal,  in  which  many  of  these  wonderful  pic- 
tures are  admirably  engraved.  Let  him  forget,  if  he  can, 
the  gorgeous  coloring  and  the  poetry  and  imagination  which 
appear  in  so  eminent  a  degree  in  Turner's  works,  and  pro- 
saically examine  the  construction  of  the  pictures;  or,  rather, 
at  present,  let  him  confine  himself  to  the  one  point  I  have 
suggested,  and  when  he  is  well  grounded  in  that,  he  may  ad- 
vance another  step  without  fear  of  having  to  turn  back. 

Taking  a  few  examples  at  random,  let  me  first  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  lovely  Devonshire  landscape,  "  Crossing  the 
Brook,"  where  the  dog  in  the  stream  forms  the  balancing- 
point  of  the  composition;  then  turn  to  the  "  Temeraire," 
and  notice  how  the  buoy  performs  the  same  function.  In 


26  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

"Brighton  Chain  Pier,"  "The  Sun  Rising  in  the  Mist," 
"Ancient  Rome,"  "Spithead,"  "St.  Michael's  Mount," 
"Stranded  Vessels  off  Yarmouth,"  "Fishing  Boats,"  and 
other  sea  views,  a  buoy,  barrel,  anchor,  boat,  or  piece  of 
wreck,  will  always  be  found  doing  the  same  duty.  In  the 
"  Polyphemus,"  the  dark  prows  of  the  galleys  cutting  against 
the  sky  give  wonderful  power  to  that  glorious  sunrise.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  landscapes  proper.  Look  at  "  Petworth 
Park,"  and  observe  how  the  dark  form  of  the  doe,  standing 
against  the  light  in  the  foreground,  appears  to  have  been  the 
last  thing  done,  but  without  which  the  harmony  would  not 
have  been  complete.  In  the  curious  picture,  representing  a 
scene  in  Boccacio,  called  "The  Birdcage,"  it  will  be  found 
that  a  white  spot — the  music-book  on  the  ground — has  been 
used  to  complete  the  balance.  Notice  how,  almost  invariably, 
he  places  his  darkest  dark  in  immediate  juxtaposition  with  his 
highest  light,  of  which  his  "  Dutch  Boats  in  a  Gale  "  is  a  good 
example.  Notice,  also,  and  remember  how,  in  his  wildest 
fancies,  painted  when  some  people  think  his  genius  had  de- 
serted him,  or  almost  amounted  to  insanity,  Turner  strictly 
obeyed  the  simple  rules  of  composition ;  for  example  in  the 
"  Whalers,"  and  that  weird  and  wonderful  picture  of  so  pro- 
saic a  thing  as  a  railway  train,  to  which  he  has  given  the 
name  "Rain!  Steam!  Speed!"  And  if  the  greatest  land- 
scape painter  that  ever  lived  could  approve  of  these  rules,  and 
bend  his  great  genius  down  to  them,  it  is  not  for  the  tyro  in 
art,  or  even  the  advanced  student,  to  say,  "Art  is  above  rules, 
which  only  act  as  a  drag  on  invention,  and  as  a  curb  to  the 
imagination." 

Having  arrived  at  this  point,  having  attained  some  knowl- 
edge of  elementary  pictorial  construction,  and  having  ob- 
served in  pictures  how  that  construction  has  been  observed 
by  painters,  the  student  may  now  turn  to  nature,  look  on  ob- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  27 

jects  indoors  and  out  of  doors,  carefully  analyze  any  object  or 
group  of  objects  that  appear  to  have  a  pleasing  effect,  and 
he  will  find,  in  some  degree,  that  the  cause  of  the  pleasure  he 
experiences  in  looking  upon  them  begins  to  dawn  upon  his 
mind.  Let  him  ask  himself  whether,  even  at  this  early  stage 
of  his  knowledge,  he  looks  upon  nature  with  the  same  indif- 
ference he  formerly  did,  and  if  he  has  discovered  new  sources 
of  pleasure,  through  the  medium  of  art,  with  which  hitherto  he 
has  been  unacquainted,  and  for  which  he  never  cared.  If  he 
has  discovered  new  sensations  and  new  enjoyments,  he  has 
put  these  lessons  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  written, 
and  may  go  on  with  those  that  are  to  come ;  if  not,  he  had 
much  better  give  the  matter  up,  or  "try  back."  I  ask  this 
question  thus  early,  because,  if  the  subject  of  the  last  three 
chapters  be  not  quite  mastered,  all  I  have  further  to  say  will 
appear  but  as  so  much  confusiqn. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

UNITY. 

In  a  former  chapter  I  spoke  of  unity  as  one  of  the  essential 
constituents  of  a  successful  picture.  In  some  respects  it  would 
have  been  better  to  have  considered  what  was  meant  by  unity 
in  that  place,  but  it  would  have  delayed  me  in  placing  before 
you  the  law  of  balance  and  contrast,  in  which  I  was  anxious  to 
secure  your  interest  at  the  outset. 

In  speaking  of  unity  as  one  of  the  essential  elements  of 
composition,  I  did  so  from  a  firm  conviction  that  whatever 
beauties  a  picture  may  contain,  however  exact  its  imitation  of 
nature,  correct  its  arrangement  of  lines,  beautiful  its  color, 
extreme  its  finish,  or  great  the  dexterity  of  handling  mani- 


28  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

fested,  no  perfect  sense  of  satisfaction  will  be  conveyed  to  the 
eye  if  the  lights  are  scattered,  if  breadth  of  light  and  shade  be 
not  preserved,  or  if  two  or  more  episodes,  unconnected  with 
each  other,  appear  on  the  same  canvas. 

Unity  has  been  well  defined  as  "the  keystone  of  nature, 
and  expresses  the  harmony  of  the  Divine  mind  as  rendered  in 
creation. ' '  Unity  can  only  be  attained  by  a  study  of  first  prin- 
ciples. It  is  the  law  of  nature  that  principle  shall  precede  de- 
tails ;  in  the  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  the  general 
design  is  described  as  first  laid  down,  and  the  details  as  fol- 
lowing. Unity  is  so  simple  that  it  is  often  overlooked :  but 
no  success  in  any  other  qualities  desirable  in  a  picture,  as  I 
have  already  said,  will  compensate  for  its  absence.  In  photo- 
graphs, where  there  is  no  color  to  distract  the  attention  from 
the  design,  it  is  especially  necessary.  It  is  the  absence  of 
unity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  figures  in  a  photographic 
landscape  that  so  frequently  mars  the  beauty  of  an  otherwise 
effective  picture.  It  is  too  often  the  practice  to  scatter  fig- 
ures, dressed  inharmoniously  with  the  scene,  over  the  fore- 
ground of  a  landscape,  without  any  reference  to  one  another, 
or  the  propriety  of  their  being  there  at  all,  and  so  unity  is 
disregarded  and  lost. 

Like  most  of  the  elements  which  constitute  a  good  picture, 
unity  is  a  quality  more  easy  to  feel  than  describe;  but  I  think 
I  shall  not  be  far  wrong  if  I  define  it  as  the  fit  connection  of 
all  parts  to  a  perfect  whole.  The  province  or  function  of  unity 
is  to  combine  and  bring  to  a  focus  the  secondary  qualities,  such 
as  variety,  contrast,  symmetry,  etc.  It  is  equally  opposed  to 
scattered  ideas,  scattered  lines,  or  scattered  lights  in  a  picture. 
In  nature,  light,  when  broken  in  its  passage,  though  the  amount 
be  diminished,  is  rendered  more  irritating  to  the  eye.  We  can 
bear  the  full,  uninterrupted  splendor  of  the  setting  sun,  but 
when  its  rays  are  cut  up  and  divided  by  passing  through  a 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  20 

screen  of  leaves  and  branches,  the  irritation  affects  the  least 
educated  eye.  This  feeling  of  irritation,  caused  by  spotty 
lights,  more  properly  belongs  to  the  subject  of  light  and  shade, 
and  will  be  spoken  of  in  its  proper  place ;  but  there  is  a  unity 
of  lines  and  a  unity  of  action  that  must  be  considered,  more 
especially  in  the  composition  of  figures  ;  but  unity  of  purpose 
is  as  necessary  in  the  expression  of  a  landscape  as  unity  of 
action  is  in  the  figure-subject.  All  objects  must  assimilate  in 
one  point,  however  dissimilar  they  may  be  in  themselves.  There 
must  be  some  conformity  of  tone  and  relation  of  line,  however 
great  the  variety  in  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  view. 

In  photographing  any  object,  whether  landscape,  portrait,  or 
group  of  figures,  one  leading  idea  must  be  maintained.  The 
fact  that  has  to  be  stated  must  not  be  clouded  with  confusion. 
The  work  should  constitute  one  whole ;  it  should  fully  pro- 
nounce its  own  meaning.  There  should  be  nothing  left  for 
verbal  explanation.  A  picture  should  not  require  a  showman; 
a  picture  that  does  not  tell  its  own  story  is  as  tiresome  as  a 
volume  overlaid  at  all  parts  with  notes  and  annotations  to  ex- 
plain that  which  should  need  no  explanation.  In  a  landscape 
will  always  be  found  some  object  of  more  importance  than  the 
rest,  to  which  all  other  parts  are  subordinate,  and  to  which  all 
other  objects  lead.  It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  photographer 
to  choose  such  a  position  for  his  camera  as  will  increase  this 
effect,  so  as  to  make  the  most  of  the  principal  object,  or  the 
subject  of  the  picture,  and  to  allow  no  rival  to  be  near  to  de- 
tract from  the  full  effect.  A  very  common  instance  of  the  loss 
of  unity  in  photographic  landscapes  is  in  the  position  and 
action  in  which  figures  are  placed.  I  have  an  example  in  my 
portfolio,  a  description  of  which  will  illustrate  how  much  mis- 
chief may  be  done  by  this  disregard  of  unity. 

The  scene  is  a  rural  lane,  crossed  by  a  brook,  and  closed  in 
with  trees.    Half-way  down  the  lane,  growing  on  the  flower- 


30  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


covered  bank,  are  seen  the  trunk  and  gnarled  roots  of  a  grand 
oak,  which  receive  the  principal  light ;  this  light  is  repeated 
in  the  water,  and  gradually  diffused  through  the  picture. 
Stretching  from  the  left  are  the  dark  and  graceful  branches  of 
a  sycamore-tree,  which,  extending  partly  over  the  trunk  of  the 
oak,  by  the  opposition  of  their  dark  leaves  in  shadow,  increase 
the  brilliancy  of  the  chief  mass  of  light,  and  assist  in  leading 
the  eye  to  the  principal  object.  There  is  no  mass  of  light  so 
large  or  so  high  in  tone  as  that  on  and  around  the  tree-trunk — 
not  a  line  out  of  place  ;  and  it  is  altogether  one  of  those  scenes 
on  which  the  eye  loves  to  linger,  and  which  can  be  quite  ex- 
pressed by  photography.  And  yet  this  is  one  of  the  most 
irritating  pictures  I  ever  saw.  The  cause  of  the  irritation  is 
supplied  by  comparatively  a  very  small  part  of  the  whole ;  but 
it  is  there  so  palpably,  that  I  keep  the  picture  only  as  a  warn- 
ing, and  never  look  upon  it  for  pleasure.  In  the  centre  of  the 
picture,  cut  out  sharply  against  the  light,  looking  straight  into 
the  camera,  having  no  part  in,  and,  apparently,  caring  nothing 
for  the  lovely  scenery  around,  is  a  figure.  And  thus  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  photographs  I  know  is  spoiled  by  a  ridiculous 
incongruity,  which  destroys  all  unity.  If  two  or  three  village 
children  had  been  introduced,  naturally  employed  picking 
flowers  from  the  bank,  or  engaged  in  any  other  rural  occupa- 
tion, they  would  have  appeared  like  a  rich  cluster  of  jewels  in 
an  appropriate  setting. 

The  same  remarks  apply  equally  to  portraits  or  groups,  of 
which  more  in  the  proper  place,  as  the  subject  will  receive 
fuller  treatment  in  the  section  devoted  to  light  and  shade. 

In  this  chapter,  I  direct  attention  to  a  principle  rather  than 
to  mere  rules,  which  can  be  expressed  in  so  many  words.  But 
I  must  impress  thus  early  upon  you  this  dominant  idea  — that 
if  a  picture  is  to  be  successful,  it  must  have  a  oneness  of  pur- 
pose or  intention,  a  oneness  of  story,  a  oneness  of  thought,  a 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  31 

oneness  of  lines,  a  oneness  of  light  and  shade.  Everything 
must  have  a  meaning,  and  the  meaning  must  be  the  object  of 
the  picture;  there  must  be  nothing  "  to  let." 

I  am  more  desirous  you  should  "feel"  what  unity  is,  be- 
cause unity  and  balance  together  constitute  the  chief  mechani- 
cal elements  of  pictorial  effect,  and  may  exist  altogether  apart 
from  any  story  to  be  told,  or  intention  to  be  expressed,  in  a 
picture,  although  the  telling  of  a  story  rightly  is  a  part  of 
unity,  which  seems  paradoxical.  These  two  —  balance  and 
unity  —  should,  therefore,  be  thoroughly  understood  first; 
other  elements  of  harmony,  such  as  refer  to  intention,  subor- 
dination, keeping,  etc.,  are  not  the  less  important,  but  will  be 
all  the  more  perfectly  understood  and  expressed  after  the  stu- 
dent has  thoroughly  grounded  himself  in  the  more  mechanical 
elements ;  as,  however  prolific  a  man  may  be  in  ideas,  he  can- 
not express  these  ideas  intelligibly  until  he  has  learned  a  lan- 
guage and  its  grammar,  or  laws  of  construction.  Balance  and 
unity  are  principles  of  construction,  upon  which  must  be  based 
every  intention  to  be  expressed  in  the  picture.  I  lay  the 
greater  stress  upon  this  initial  idea,  because  it  has  too  often 
happened  that  the  art-teaching  which  has  been  supplied  to 
photographers  has  dealt  rather  with  the  thoughts  to  be  ex- 
pressed than  on  the  modes  of  expressing  them ;  and  it  is  of 
lirtle  use  endeavoring  to  teach  a  man  to  write  poetry  until  he 
has  learned  to  spell. 


32  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EXAMPLES  ' '  EXPRESSION. ' ' 

Having  commenced  this  book  with  the  determination  to 
connect  all  I  have  to  say  on  pictorial  effect  with  photography, 
and  to  demonstrate  the  application  of  the  different  forms  of 
composition  with  our  art,  this  seems  a  proper  occasion  to  give 
a  sketch  from  a  photograph,  showing  in  what  manner  the  rules 
of  art — as  far  as  already  expressed — have  guided  the  photog- 
rapher in  the  selection  of  his  subject.  The  sketch  on  the  next 
page  gives  the  leading  features  of  a  delicious  little  photograph 
of  a  scene  in  the  lake  district — "  Derwentwater,  Cats  Bells  in 
the  distance" — by  Mr.  Mudd.  And  I  may  point  out,  as  a 
singular  instance  of  the  possibility  of  the  photographer  mould- 
ing his  materials  to  his  wishes,  the  fact  that  a  landscape  by 
Mr.  Mudd  is  rarely  to  be  met  with  the  composition  of  which 
is  not  nearly  perfect.  From  a  large  collection  of  his  works 
now  before  me,  I  am  not  able  to  select  any  more  than  two  or 
three  in  which  there  is  felt  any  want  of  balance,  unity,  and 
harmony ;  and  this  small  minority  consists  of  local  views,  or 
portraits  of  places  interesting  from  their  association,  but  which 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  tractable  in  the  hands  of  the  art- 
ist. Although  the  art  is  properly  concealed,  the  trained  eye 
can  discover  and  admire  the  many  ingenious  devices  he  has 
adopted  to  hide  a  defect,  to  discover  a  beauty,  or  to  throw 
more  prominently  forward  the  chief  point  of  his  subject.  All 
have  admired  Mr.  Mudd's  charming  pictures,  but  few  have 
cared  to  inquire  to  what  their  excellence  was  chiefly  due,  but 
have  been  content  to  attribute  it  to  his  perfect  manipulation 


34  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

of  the  collodio-albumen  process,  a  method  of  working  which 
he  has  made  his  own,  but  which,  notwithstanding  its  excel- 
lence, does  not  account  for  the  skilful  arrangement  of  his  sub- 
jects. The  same  remarks  are  equally  true  of  the  pictures  of 
Mr.  Bedford.  In  the  works  of  these  gentlemen,  nothing  ap- 
pears to  be  done  without  a  purpose.  If  a  figure  is  introduced, 
it  performs  some  important  function  in  the  composition,  either 
to  lead  the  eye,  to  emphasize  a  point,  to  throw  back  the  dis- 
tance, or  to  collect  some  scattered  lights  or  darks  together,  by 
which  breadth  is  gained  and  confusion  avoided.  If  the  point 
of  view  admits  of  a  picturesque  foreground,  whereby  an  un- 
pictorial  principal  object  may  be  made  into  an  interesting 
picture,  it  is  secured ;  nothing  seems  to  be  forgotten  that 
could  increase  the  effect  or  help  to  please  the  eye..  And  as 
this  occurs  in  the  larger  number  of  views  taken  by  both  gen- 
tlemen, it  cannot  be  laid  to  the  account  of  chance,  but  must 
be  the  result  of  knowledge. 

The  sketch  gives  a  very  faint  idea  of  the  original  photo- 
graph. It  is  printed  from  a  phototype  block.  The  relief 
was  taken  from  a  rough  sketch,  made  experimentally  to  test 
this  process,  and  sufficient  care  was  not  taken  to  produce  a 
finished  drawing,  the  draughtsman  being  under  the  impression 
that  a  rather  coarse  sketch  was  necessary,  instead  of  which 
a  drawing  full  of  detail  would  have  produced  a  much  better 
result.  However,  the  photograph  is  in  the  hands  of,  or  has 
been  seen  by,  so  many  of  my  readers,  that  this  slight  and 
imperfect  sketch  will  suffice  to  recall  the  original  to  their 
memories  j  and  I  apologize  to  Mr.  Mudd  for  presenting  such 
a  poor  translation  of  his  beautiful  picture. 

The  first  thing  that  will  strike  the  reader  of  these  lessons,  as 
he  looks  on  the  original,  is  the  admirable  way  in  which  balance 
has  been  obtained  by  the  boulders  in  the  foreground  j  the  next, 
the  immense  distance  that  is  felt  between  the  foreground  and 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  35 


the  distant  mountains.  This  effect  is  almost  entirely  produced 
by  the  arrangement  and  opposition  of  the  dark  stones  in  front. 
If  the  standpoint  for  the  camera  had  been  shifted  a  few  feet 
either  to  the  right  or  the  left,  a  very  different  and  much  less 
valuable  picture  would  have  been  produced.  The  stones  in 
the  one  case  would  have  been  excluded  from  the  picture,  and 
the  distance  looked  flat ;  in  the  other,  the  stones  would  have 
been  either  in  the  centre,  or  weakest  point,  or  on  the  right 
side  of  the  picture,  under  the  dark  trees  in  the  middle  distance, 
thus  having  all  the  dark  on  one  side  of  the  picture,  and  all  the 
light  on  the  other. 

As  I  am  writing,  a  young  friend,  who  has  just  commenced 
his  study  of  art  by  reading  Howard's  Sketched s  Manual,  tells 
me  the  removal  of  the  stones  to  the  other  side  would  produce 
the  "  wedge  "  form  of  composition,  which,  he  is  told,  is  much 
used  by  landscape  painters.  This  is  quite  true,  and  agrees 
with  all  I  have  yet  said,  because  all  angular  composition  must, 
more  or  less,  partake  of  the  form  of  the  wedge,  which  is  the 
basis  of  many  of  the  finest  compositions.  Let  the  student 
bear  in  mind,  however,  as  an  axiom,  in  arranging  his  masses 
in  this  form,  that  the  point  of  the  wedge  must  be  supported. 
Without  such  support,  the  picture  will  convey  the  uncomfort- 
able impression  that  some  of  the  principal  masses  will  slip 
down.  And  I  would  here  guard  my  readers  against  the  error 
of  my  young  friend — that  of  jumping  to  the  hasty  and  imper- 
fect conclusions  which  a  superficial  familiarity  with  the  tech- 
nical names  by  which  various  forms  of  composition  are  desig- 
nated, without  an  understanding  of  the  principles  upon  which 
all  pictorial  effect  must  be  based.  I  would  strongly  recom- 
mend the  student  of  these  lessons  to  blend  his  reading  with 
practice,  endeavoring  to  produce  photographs  in  which  art 
rules  are  embodied  and  illustrated.  Above  all  things,  avoid 
the  glib,  parrot-like  parade  of  art  terminology,  which,  with- 


36  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

out  art  practice,  is  such  a  contemptible  thing  to  all  earnest 
men. 

One  of  the  most  precious  qualities  of  the  photograph,  which 
has  suggested  these  remarks,  is  its  perfect  expression.  It  is 
not  that  of  repose,  so  much  as  of  perfect  serenity.  It  suggests 
to  the  mind  one  of  those  lovely  days,  of  which  not  a  dozen 
occur  in  a  twelvemonth,  when  the  sun  shines  with  a  white 
light,  and  the  breeze  is  hushed  so  still  that  you  can  hear  the 
bee  hum,  and  the  trout  leap  in  the  lake  —  one  of  those  days 
when,  to  the  photographer,  fortune  helps  art,  but  also  one  of 
those  days  on  which,  with  such  a  photographer  as  Mr.  Mudd 
— who  is  not  content  with  mere  unselected  looking-glass 
truth — art  helps  fortune. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  expression  of  this  picture.  Some  may 
doubt  that  such  a  thing  was  possible  in  landscape  photogra- 
phy ;  but  it  is  so,  to  a  very  great  degree.  Some  scenes  de- 
mand that  they  should  be  rendered  in  a  sparkling  and  lively 
manner;  others,  such  as  portraits  of  places,  with  all  the  dry 
matter-of-fact  of  mechanical  art ;  others,  again,  are  better  ex- 
pressed under  the  gloom  of  approaching  twilight.  I  have 
before  me  two  photographs.  The  one  so  absolutely  expresses 
the  effect  of  early  morning,  that  you  feel  the  chill,  bracing 
air  as  you  look  at  it.  It  is  difficult  to  explain  how  this  is  ob- 
tained. The  scene  represents  the  outskirt  of  a  distant  town, 
round  which  runs  a  river.  The  distance  is  composed  of  hills. 
The  sun,  shining  on  the  slate  roofs  of  the  distant  houses, 
causes  so  many  glittering  spots  of  light,  which,  however,  are 
well  grouped  together.  The  river  also  shimmers  in  the  sun- 
light, forming  a  broad  curved  line  of  light  stretching  across  and 
into  the  picture  ;  the  foreground  is  composed  of  a  steep  bank. 
The  photograph,  in  this  state,  would  look  scattered,  and  with- 
out unity ;  but  on  the  bank  is  placed  the  figure  of  a  girl,  with 
a  basket,  gathering  ferns.    The  figure  is  by  far  the  blackest 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  37 

spot  in  the  picture,  but  possesses  touches  of  the  highest  lights, 
caused  by  the  strong  sunlight,  which  gathers  together  and  re- 
peats the  lights  in  the  distance  and  on  the  river.  This  figure 
has  the  effect  of  reducing  the  whole  into  harmony.  The  con- 
clusion is,  that  the  glittering  lights,  like  sparkling  dew,  give 
the  effect  of  early  morning  ;  but  these  lights,  if  not  corrected, 
would  have  a  scattered  and  disagreeable  effect.  This  is  quite 
compensated  for  by  the  figure,  which  brings  them  into  a  focus. 

The  other  picture  is  a  view  of  the  pool  at  Burnham  Beeches, 
in  which  the  effect  of  the  commencement  of  twilight  is  per- 
fectly given.  The  sun  is  sinking  behind  a  screen  of  trees, 
defining  the  branches  and  trunks  with  a  thin  edge  of  light. 
The  darkest  mass  of  shadow  is  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  re- 
lieved by  some  white  ducks  on  the  bank  of  the  pool,  which 
serve  to  enliven  the  only  part  of  the  picture  that  was  in  danger 
of  dulness.  No  figure  is  introduced,  and  the  whole  expres- 
sion is  that  of  solitude  and  gloom. 

In  looking  over  my  portfolio,  I  meet  with  another  photo- 
graph which  will  also  illustrate  what  I  have  advanced.  In  this 
picture — which  is  by  Mr.  Durrant,  of  Torquay — a  breezy  day 
is  perfectly  expressed.  It  has  not  that  appearance  of  petrified 
motion  which  is  sometimes  the  defect  of  instantaneous  photo- 
graphs of  the  sea,  but  you  feel  that  the  wind  is  stirring  the 
trees,  although  it  is  evident  that  nothing  moved  while  the  pic- 
ture was  being  taken,  and  the  exposure  must  have  been  con- 
siderable. The  clouds,  from  a  separate  negative,  appear  to 
skim  through  the  sky  with  a  very  lively  motion.  These  ex- 
amples will,  I  hope,  tend  to  show  that  photography,  even  in 
landscape,  need  not  be  the  lifeless  thing  we  find  it  in  average 
productions. 


38  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PRACTICE.  "THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT." 

Composition  based  on  the  diagonal  line  —  the  form  of  ar- 
rangement to  which  the  foregoing  chapters  have  been  princi- 
pally devoted  —  having  been  considered,  it  appears  to  be  a  fit 
time  to  say  something  on  landscape  composition  generally ; 
the  more  so,  seeing  that  I  have  already  urged  the  student  to 
accompany  his  study  of  these  lessons  by  practical  attempts 
to  carry  out  the  instructions  from  time  to  time  brought  under 
his  attention.  A  few  hints  on  his  general  mode  of  procedure  in 
attempting  landscape  work  may,  therefore,  be  of  service  here. 

Elegance  in  landscape  composition,  in  views  where  no  ex- 
traordinary object  suffices  in  itself  to  engage  the  attention, 
appears  to  demand  free  sweeps  of  lines  contrasting  each  other; 
a  fine,  vigorous  foreground,  which,  especially  in  photography, 
should  be  made  use  of  to  govern  and  correct  those  parts  of  the 
picture  beyond  the  control  of  the  artist ;  a  middle  distance 
that  delicately  melts  into  the  distant  mountains  and  into  the 
sky.  Lines,  and  light  and  shade,  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  eye  is  led  into  the  picture,  and  allowed  something  to  rest 
upon ;  that  something  should  be  the  theme  on  which  the 
picture  is  built.  If  there  are  any  ugly  lines  in  the  view  that 
cannot  be  got  rid  of  by  change  of  position,  or  by  opposing 
lines,  or  masses  of  light  or  shadow  in  the  foreground,  then 
the  background  of  the  landscape — the  sky — must  be  made  use 
of,  and,  by  the  disposition  of  the  clouds,  much  bad  composi- 
tion may  be  remedied. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  39 

There  are  several  things  worthy  of  the  careful  consideration 
of  the  landscape  photographer  before  he  packs  up  his  traps 
and  takes  the  field.    The  first  is  a  meteorological  one. 

Without  a  favorable  state  of  the  weather,  the  most  perfect 
manipulation  and  skilful  arrangement  would  be  worse  than 
useless ;  they  would  be  thrown  away  upon  subjects  that  might 
have  been  better  done  under  more  propitious  circumstances. 
Nothing  is  more  annoying  to  a  conscientious  photographer 
than  to  know  that  a  greater  degree  of  perfection  might  have 
been  attained  than  that  which  he  has  effected,  except,  perhaps, 
the  possession  of  a  negative  too  good  to  destroy,  but  not  good 
enough  to  print  —  a  negative  just  so  much  short  of  perfection 
as  to  cause  regret  that  it  ever  was  done. 

The  most  perfect  day  for  pure  landscape  operations  is  one 
on  which  the  wind  is  still ;  and  when  I  say  pure  landscape,  I 
do  not  include  sea-views,  which  are,  perhaps,  more  grand,  if 
not  more  beautiful,  under  the  influence  of  wind  than  in  a 
placid  condition.  It  has  been  said  that  nature  is  insipid  when* 
in  a  quiescent  state ;  and  that  it  would  be  better  to  sacrifice 
sharpness  than  to  tolerate  tameness ;  but,  apart  from  all  pho- 
tographic considerations,  what  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the 
majestic  calm  of  a  still  landscape  ?  The  great  charm  of  a  fine 
twilight  consists  more  in  the  serenity  and  quietude  that  reign 
at  that  period  of  the  day  when 

"All  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds," 

than  in  the  fading  light  and  in  the  dying  of  the  day.  Inci- 
dentally, and  in  connection  with  twilight,  a  fine  effect  of 
contrast  may  be  here  mentioned.  Who,  when  taking  an 
evening  walk  in  the  country,  has  not  felt  the  effect  of  the 
twilight  calm  increased  and  enhanced  by  the  sudden  sound 
of  the  slamming  of  a  distant  gate,  or  the  bark  of  a  dog  in  a 
neighboring  farm-yard? 


40  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Of  all  faults  photographs  possess  as  pictures,  that  caused  by 
the  motion  of  the  object  photographed  is  one  of  the  worst. 
This  is  especially  true  of  foliage  ;  and  if  a  negative  is  found  to 
have  this  defect  to  any  degree,  it  should  be  rubbed  out  at 
once.  Still  waters,  as  a  rule,  are  best  on  quiet  days.  Gusts 
of  wind  partially  skimming  over  a  lake  add  surface  to  the 
water  and  vivacity  and  life  to  a  picture,  it  is  true,  but  there  is 
I  great  beauty  in  the  grand  reflections  in  still  water,  which  is  so 
exquisitely  rendered  by  our  art. 

The  light,  usually  held  to  be  of  the  first  consideration  in 
photography,  is  here  placed  second,  because,  if  the  subject  be 
not  in  a  fit  condition  to  be  photographed,  it  would  be  useless 
to  have  it  well  lighted.  It  should  be  taken  as  an  axiom  that 
most  landscape  subjects  should  be  sunlighted.  Nature  cer- 
tainly looks  more  beautiful  in  sunlight  than  in  shade  (there 
are,  of  course,  exceptions).  A  landscape  without  sunlight, 
especially  if  it  be  an  extensive  view,  is  usually  flat  and  low  in 
tone,  and  this  tameness  would  certainly  not  be  lessened  in 
the  photographic  transcript,  for  if  a  subject  have  not  sufficient 
breadth  of  light  and  shade  to  give  relief,  the  landscape  pho- 
tographer's powers  of  producing  that  desirable  quality  are 
very  limited,  and  the  attempts  to  do  so  generally  result  in 
hardness;  besides,  who  would  prefer  the  cold,  dull,  prosaic 
effect  of  daylight  to  the  warm,  cheering  glow  of  "Nature's 
smile  "  ? 

In  selecting  a  sunny  day,  it  is  not  necessary  that  a  cloud- 
less sky  should  be  chosen ;  on  the  contrary,  a  dark-blue  sky 
is,  to  a  certain  extent,  non-actinic,  and  a  day  on  which  white 
clouds  float  lazily  over  the  heavens,  occasionally  obscuring 
the  sun,  a  day  that  often  comes  after  rain,  when  nature  looks 
fresh  and  cheerful,  is  the  best  that  could  be  chosen  for  land- 
scape photography. 

The  choice  of  a  subject  is  the  next  thing  that  should  claim 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  41 

the  attention  of  the  photographer ;  and  now  will  be  the  time 
when  the  student  will  show  his  capability  in  artistic  treatment. 
Here  let  me  earnestly  entreat  you  to  follow  my  advice  in  one 
thing ;  determine  to  be  content  at  first  with  one  subject,  to 
work  at  it  with  all  your  heart  and  soul  until  you  have  got  the 
best  possible  representation  of  it  Even  if  it  take  a  summer, 
make  up  your  mind  to  produce  a  masterpiece.  A  complete 
triumph  over  one  subject  is  worth  more,  both  as  a  study  and 
as  a  picture,  than  the  indiscriminate  picking  up  of  any  quan- 
tity of  dull  and  feeble  commonplaces.  If  a  lot  of  mere  pho- 
tographs are  wanted,  it  is  better  to  send  a  man  to  manufacture 
them  ;  it  will  be  found  much  cheaper  also ;  but  the  study 
necessary  for  the  production  of  a  perfect  photographic  land- 
scape is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  a  superior  intellect. 

Now  comes  the  question  how  to  produce  this  masterpiece. 

It  is  of  no  use  taking  a  camera  with  you  the  first  time  you 
visit  unknown  ground  in  search  of  subjects.  When  you  have 
selected  your  subject,  and  are  satisfied  it  will  make  a  good 
picture,  let  it  command  your  undivided  attention.  Consider 
it  as  a  painter  would  if  he  were  going  to  make  a  large  and 
important  picture  of  the  scene,  consider  the  best  time  of  day, 
visit  it  several  times  during  the  day,  to  notice  how  the  chang- 
ing position  of  the  sun  alters  the  light  and  shade  and  shape 
of  the  masses.  It  is  too  often  the  practice  of  photographers 
to  work  with  the  sun  behind  the  camera,  so  as  to  get  all  the 
light  possible  on  the  subject,  forgetting  that  it  is  not  light 
alone  that  they  want,  but  light  and  shade.  The  charm  of 
sunlight  depends  very  much  upon  aspect.  This  must  be  care- 
fully considered  by  the  student.  Some  subjects  are  better 
with  the  sun  coming  on  the  side,  and  the  others  with  the  sun 
more  behind  the  view,  skimming  the  edges  of  objects  only 
with  its  rays.  Having  chosen  the  subject,  then  fix  the  exact 
spot  for  your  point  of  view ;  this  will  give  you  less  to  think 


42  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

of  when  you  bring  your  camera  next  day.  Remove  any  ob- 
trusive bows  that  appear  likely  to  interfere  with  the  view; 
and  lastly,  think  if  there  is  anything  you  could  do  to  improve 
the  already  well-considered  composition.  Make  up  your 
mind  if  a  dark  or  light  spot  is  required  in  the  foreground  to 
give  balance,  and  if  a  figure  would  answer  the  purpose,  and 
what  kind  of  a  figure,  bearing  in  mind  that  broadcloth  and 
black  hats  are  no  improvement  to  a  country  landscape,  and 
that  harmony  between  animate  and  inanimate  nature  must  be 
imperatively  preserved. 

When  you  are  perfectly  satisfied  that  your  view  presents 
the  best  possible  aspect,  that  you  have  your  figures  and  all 
else  quite  ready,  you  may  begin  to  think  of  your  chemicals, 
which  I  would  rather  you  consider  as  tools,  over  which  you 
have  perfect  command,  rather  than  as  a  series  of  scientific 
problems,  on  which  you  are  about  to  make  experiments. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SIMPLE  RULES. 

In  making  a  pictorial  representation  of  a  scene  from  nature, 
there  are  many  particulars  to  be  borne  in  mind,  some  of 
which  are  self-evident,  but  which,  for  the  sake  of  order,  and 
for  the  information  of  those  who  have  not  arrived  at  even  the 
elementary  stage  of  art,  may  as  well  be  mentioned  here. 

Parallel  lines  are  objectionable.  If  the  horizon  is  bounded 
by  a  straight  line,  the  middle  distance  or  foreground  should 
be  undulating.  This  is  often  easily  managed  by  a  change  of 
position,  so  as  to  get  a  perspective  view  of  the  foreground. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


43 


A  move  of  a  few  yards  will  often  entirely  alter  the  lines  of  a 
picture. 

A  front  elevation  of  an  object  is  seldom  so  picturesque  as 
the  same  object  seen  in  perspective,  as  the  following  example 
will  illustrate.    Fig.  8  is  from  a  stereoscopic  slide,  slightly 


exaggerated  for  the  sake  of  making  the  defective  composition 
more  palpable  to  the  student.  The  parallel  lines  of  the  towers 
are  at  right  angles  with  the  parallel  lines  of  the  river,  and  the 
alder  bush  occupies  a  prominent  position  in  the  centre;. an 
arrangement  than  which  nothing  could  be  worse.  A  position 
taken  forty  or  fifty  yards  along  the  bank  of  the  river  would 
present  a  view  as  represented  in  Fig.  9,  which  entirely  agrees 
with  the  rules  of  composition  as  set  down  in  former  chapters. 
Some  writers  argue  that,  because  the  artist  is  not  greater  than 
the  Divine  Maker  of  nature,  he  should  make  no  attempt  to 
improve  or  select  nature.  Now,  photographs  taken  from 
either  of  the  standpoints  indicated  by  these  sketches  would 
be  equally  true ;  but  Fig.  8  is  probably  the  way  in  which  these 
writers  would  represent  the  castle,  and  Fig.  9  is  how  the  same 
object  would  be  presented  by  an  artist.  I  leave  you  to  select 
which  you  would  prefer. 

However  objectionable  straight  lines  may  appear  when 
many  of  them  run  parallel  with  one  another,  a  few  straight 


44 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


lines  are  exceedingly  valuable  in  a  landscape,  giving  variety 
by  opposing  the  more  graceful  curves,  and  presenting  a  feel- 
ing of  stability  in  the  picture.  Sometimes  a  few  parallel  lines 
in  the  distance  and  sky  afford  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  un- 
dulating lines  in  the  landscape.  A  small  portion  of  straight 
lines  is  often  of  extreme  value  in  a  picture  containing  many 
curves.  The  lines  of  a  building  on  an  eminence,  or  seen 
through  trees,  always  add  to  the  picturesque  effect.  In  the 
interior  of  the  cathedral  or  church,  the  straight  lines  of  the 
columns  many  times  repeated  give  an  idea  of  stability  and 
solemnity  to  be  obtained  by  no  other  way. 

If  a  picture  were  divided  down  the  middle,  one-half  should 
never  be  a  fac-simile  of  the  other.  For  instance,  if  a  photo- 
graph were  taken  of  the  nave  of  a  church  from  the  centre  of 
the  aisle,  this  effect  would  be  produced.  The  repetition  of 
the  receding  pillars  produces  grandeur,  but  the  exact  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  pillars  on  the  opposite  side  would  produce 
monotony.  The  same  observations  will  hold  good  in  a  great 
variety  of  instances.  A  representation  of  a  view  extending 
down  an  avenue  of  trees,  down  a  river  or  down  a  street, 
should  never,  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  be  taken  from  the 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

centre.  On  a  comparison  of  Figs.  10  and  n,  the  difference  of 
result  will  be  seen  at  a  glance.    The  awkward  effect  of  placing 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


45 


leading  objects,  such  as  the  figure,  cart,  and  church  in  Fig. 
10,  one  above  the  other  in  a  line  will  also  be  apparent. 

A  picture  should  also  always,  when  it  is  possible,  be  prop- 
erly closed  in.  The  centre  of  an  arch  should  never  be  left 
without  any  other  support  than  the  side  of  the  picture,  as  in 
Fig.  12;  but  if  no  more  of  the  landscape  can  be  included,  the 


Fig.  12. 


picture  should  finish  at  the  abutment  of  one  of  the  piers  of 
the  bridge.  No  doubt  the  imagination  of  the  spectator  will 
supply  the  missing  abutment  or  support,  but  it  is  very  much 
better  to  show  it  in  the  picture.  The  same  remark  also  ap- 
plies to  arches  in  interiors. 

The  choice  of  the  position  of  the  horizon  is  often  a  matter 
for  serious  consideration,  but  it  may  be  taken  as  a  rule  that  it 
should  never  be  equidistant  from  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
picture;  that  is,  the  plane  should  not  be  equally  divided 
between  earth  and  sky.  The  exact  position — whether  the 
horizon  is  above  or  below  the  centre — must  be  determined  by 
the  subject ;  but  I  have  noticed  that  the  majority  of  photo- 
graphs seem  to  demand  that  the  greatest  space  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  earth;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  majority 
of  paintings  and  drawings  have  the  horizon  low.  The  dif- 
ference may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
hitherto  the  sky  has  been  a  difficulty  with  photographers ; 
first,  because  their  endeavor  has  been  to  produce  photographs 
so  cheap  that  they  could  not  afford  to  print  in  skies  from  a 


46  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

second  negative ;  and  secondly,  because,  although  there  is 
very  little  mechanical  or  chemical  difficulty  in  the  production 
of  natural  clouds  when  they  exist,  it  is  very  rarely  that  a  fine 
and  suitable  sky  is  found  behind  a  landscape. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FIGURES  IN  LANDSCAPE.  "TRUTH." 

Before  placing  figures  in  a  landscape,  the  artist  should  first 
make  up  his  mind  whether  the  composition  requires  the  intro- 
duction of  any  object  to  add  to  its  completeness.  If  it  does, 
do  not  let  anything  induce  him  to  take  the  view  without  the 
figure,  because  he  will  be  doing  something  that  he  can  see 
could  be  done  better  with  the  assistance  of  a  little  more 
trouble ;  above  all,  he  should  avoid  incongruity,  and  never, 
for  the  sake  of  pleasing  a  friend  by  putting  him  in  the  picture, 
introduce  an  element  of  discord,  such  as  was  illustrated  in  the 
chapter  on  Unity.  The  figures  should  look  so  right  where 
they  are  placed,  that  we  should  have  no  supposition  that  it 
would  be  possible  to  place  them  anywhere  else. 

If  perfect  pictorial  success  is  to  be  expected,  no  more  fig- 
ures than  are  absolutely  necessary  should  be  introduced.  One 
figure  more  would  be  a  useless  blot,  and  injure  the  effect.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  figures  compose  well  in  relation  to 
themselves,  as  well  as  to  the  landscape.  In  too  many  photo- 
graphs, figures  are  to  be  seen  straggling  over  the  foreground, 
perfect  strangers  to  each  other,  to  all  appearance,  united  by 
no  purpose  whatever,  except  that  of  having  their  portraits 
taken  at  a  great  disadvantage.  It,  of  course,  may  happen 
that,  in  some  scenes  in  nature,  figures  may  be  found  scattered 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  47 

over  the  ground  in  the  way  set  forth  in  many  photographs, 
and  a  picture  of  them  may  be  quite  true,  and  would,  there- 
fore, satisfy  the  desires  of  the  matter-of-fact  truth-at-any-price 
school,  who  scoff  at  the  idea  of  art  knowledge  being  of  any 
use  to  photographers ;  but  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  artist  to 
represent  agreeable  truth,  or,  at  least,  truths  that  do  not  irri- 
tate the  eye,  as  false  quantities  jar  upon  the  ear  in  verse.  I 
am  quite  aware,  and  go  as  far  as  any  in  agreeing,  that  the  real 
enjoyment  of  art  is  in  proportion  to  its  entire  truth.  I  hold, 
with  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning, 

"  Truest  Truth  the  fairest  Beauty," 

but  the  agreeable  sensations  produced  by  pictorial  representa- 
tions are  dependent,  in  a  very  great  degree,  on  the  spirit  and 
knowledge  with  which  that  truth  is  rendered.  Form  only 
will  not  give  this,  neither  will  light  and  shade  alone ;  but  the 
union  of  both,  although  color  may  be  absent  (but  which  is 
necessary  to  perfect  beauty),  suggests  that  truth  to  the  mind 
which  is  one  of  the  great  functions  of  art.  The  best  quality 
of  photography  is  this  perfect  truth,  this  absolute  rendering 
of  light  and  shade  and  form;  and  a  knowledge  that  he  is 
debarred  the  charms  of  color  should  cause  the  photographer 
to  be  more  careful  to  make  the  most  of  the  qualities  which 
his  art  possesses,  and  which  are  beyond  the  reach  of  the  painter 
and  sculptor.  It  is  not  open  to  the  photographer  to  produce 
his  effects  by  departing  from  the  facts  of  nature,  as  has  been 
the  practice  with  the  painter  for  ages;  but  he  may  use  all 
legitimate  means  of  presenting  the  story  he  has  to  tell  in  the 
most  agreeable  manner,  and  it  is  his  imperative  duty  to  avoid 
the  mean,  the  base,  and  the  ugly;  and  to  aim  to  elevate  his 
subject,  to  avoid  awkward  forms,  and  to  correct  the  unpictu- 
resque.  Having  digressed  thus  far  in  search  of  ' '  what  is  truth, ' ' 
we  will  return  from  the  bottom  of  the  well  to  our  figures. 


48  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  figures  and  the  landscape  should  never  be  quite  equal 
in  interest  or  pictorial  value.  The  one  should  be  subordinate 
to  the  other.  The  picture  should  consist  of  figures  with  a 
landscape  background  (if  they  are  represented  in  the  open  air) 
or  of  a  landscape  in  which  figures  are  introduced  merely  for 
the  sake  of  impressing  a  point  or  adding  life  to  the  more 
important  scene.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  pictures  are  some- 
times produced,  with  good  effect,  the  converse  of  this,  and 
the  figures  vie  with  the  scene  in  interest ;  but  the  subjects 
must  be  fine,  and  the  skill  of  the  artist  great,  or  the  success 
will  be  hazardous. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  general  directions  for  doing  that  which 
must,  after  all,  have  a  special  consideration  in  each  case ;  it 
would,  therefore,  be  next  to  impossible  for  me  to  give  more 
definite  directions  for  the  introduction  of  figures  in  landscapes 
than  has  already  been  stated  in  this  and  former  chapters ;  but 
I  may  sum  up  the  subject  by  saying  that  the  figure  must  be  of 
the  subject,  as  well  as  in  it,  in  order  that  the  unity  may  be 
preserved ;  that  it  must  be  used  with  a  purpose,  to  give  life  to 
a  scene,  or  to  supply  an  important  spot  of  light  or  dark;  to 
give  balance,  or  to  bring  other  parts  into  subordination,  by 
being  either  blacker  or  whiter  than  those  parts ;  and  that  what 
is  to  be  avoided  is  the  indiscriminate  dragging  in  of  figures 
into  scenes  in  which  they  have  no  business,  and  where  they 
do  nothing  but  mischief.  Perhaps  the  best  lesson  on  this  sub- 
ject is  to  be  obtained  from  the  observation  of  photographs  in 
which  figures  have  been  successfully  introduced — if  with  the  I 
assistance  of  a  competent  teacher,  all  the  better. 

With  the  exception  of  a  chapter  on  the  sky,  and  incidentally 
when  I  come  to  the  consideration  of  chiaro-oscuro,  I  have 
done  with  landscape  composition.  How  often  do  photog- 
raphers travel  over  miles  of  country  without  finding  anything 
they  consider  worthy  of  their  attention,  although,  perhaps, 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  49 

exquisite  subjects  may  exist  at  every  turn  of  the  road.  The 
art  of  photography  has  arrived  at  a  sufficient  state  of  perfec- 
tion, in  its  own  way,  to  prevent  us  having  any  fear  in  ac- 
knowledging that  it  is  not  possessed  of  unlimited  power; 
that  the  sublime  cannot  be  reached  by  it ;  and  that  its  power 
is  greatest  when  it  attempts  the  simplest  things.  But  if  it  is 
not  the  mountain  that  it  can  represent  best,  what  art  can 
equal  it  in  its  representation  of  the  mole-hill?  A  basket,  a 
hamper,  a  stone,  a  log  of  wood,  a  barrel — all  or  any  of  these 
— may  be  made  valuable  when  a  foreground  presents  nothing 
of  especial  interest  in  itself.  By  their  presence,  they  at  once 
give  tenderness  to  the  distance  and  space  to  the  picture. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  SKY. 

The  importance  of  the  sky  as  an  aid  to  effect  in  landscape 
cannot  be  overrated.  In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  that  admirable 
painter,  Constable — who  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  and  fol- 
lower of  nature  in  his  works,  and  who  spent  entire  summers 
in  painting  skies — thus  writes,  and  his  observations  should  be 
taken  to  heart  by  all  landscape  photographers:  "That  land- 
scape painter  who  does  not  make  his  sky  a  very  material  part 
of  his  composition  neglects  to  avail  himself  of  one  of  his  great- 
est aids.  I  have  often  been  advised  to  consider  my  sky  as  a 
'  white  sheet  thrown  behind  the  objects  !  '  Certainly,  if  the 
sky  is  obtrusive,  as  mine  are,  it  is  bad ;  but  if  it  is  evaded,  as 
mine  are  not,  it  is  worse ;  it  must,  and  always  shall,  with  me, 
make  an  effectual  part  of  the  composition.  It  will  be  difficult 
to  name  a  class  of  landscape  in  which  the  sky  is  not  the  key- 

4 


50  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

note,  the  standard  of  scale,  and  the  chief  organ  of  sentiment. 
You  may  conceive,  then,  what  a  '  white  sheet '  would  do  for 
me,  impressed  as  I  am  with  these  notions ;  and  they  cannot 
be  erroneous.  The  sky  is  the  source  of  light  in  nature,  and 
governs  everything;  even  our  common  observations  on  the 
weather  of  every  day  are  altogether  suggested  by  it.  The 
difficulty  of  skies  in  painting  is  very  great,  both  as  to  compo- 
sition and  execution,  because,  with  all  their  brilliancy,  they 
ought  not  to  come  forward,  or,  indeed,  be  hardly  thought  of, 
any  more  than  extreme  distances  are ;  but  this  does  not  apply 
to  phenomena,  or  accidental  effects  of  sky,  because  they  always 
attract  particularly." 

Although  I  do  not  think  it  advisable  to  make  a  too  liberal 
use  of  quotations,  I  cannot  forbear  adding  Leslie's  testimony 
to  the  value  of  the  sky,  which  contains  a  very  beautiful 
thought:  "  Rocks,  trees,  mountains,  plains,  and  waters  are 
the  features  of  a  landscape,  but  its  expression  comes  from 
above ;  and  it  is  scarcely  metaphorical  to  say  Nature  smiles 
or  weeps,  and  is  tranquil,  sad,  or  disturbed  with  rage,  as  the 
atmosphere  affects  her.  Hence  the  paramount  importance 
of  the  sky  in  landscape — an  importance  not  diminished  even 
when  it  forms  but  a  small  portion  of  the  composition." 

It  often  occurs  that  a  view  must  be  taken  of  a  scene  that 
composes  badly,  and  which,  from  accidents  of  the  ground,  it 
is  impossible  to  select  another  point  of  view.  The  artistic 
photographer  now  has  his  remedy  in  the  sky,  and  if  he 
understands  the  use  of  it  for  producing  pictorial  effect,  he 
may  redeem  the  ugliness  of  a  scene  not  worth  photographing 
for  itself,  but  which  may  be  interesting  from  its  associations. 

It  is  true  that  the  attempt  to  add  a  suitable  sky  to  land- 
scape, as  Constable  found,  presents  difficulties  which  manf 
photographers  would  be  glad  to  avoid  ;  but  they  should  recol- 
lect that  the  greater  the  difficulty,  if  it  be  successfully  sur- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


51 


mounted,  the  greater  will  be  the  triumph.  In  the  quaint  but 
beautiful  lines  of  old  George  Fuller — 

"  Who  aims  the  sky,  shoots  higher  far 
Than  he  who  means  a  tree." 

The  sky  is  the  natural  background  of  the  landscape,  and 
should  be  of  the  same  use  to  the  landscapist  as  a  background 
is  to  a  portrait  photographer,  and  should  not  be  regarded  as 
so  much  waste  paper,  as  is  too  frequently  done,  but  should  be 
made  to  throw  out  and  relieve  the  principal  subject,  by  the 
direction  of  the  cloud  lines  opposing  the  lines  of  the  land- 
scape, by  the  opposition  of  light  and  shade,  either  to  produce 
relief  or  breadth,  and  to  generally  assist  in  the  production  of 
pictorial  effect ;  unless,  indeed,  as  sometimes  occurs — a  fine 
sunset,  for  example — the  sky  be  the  chief  object  represented  ; 
then  the  landscape  must  be  subordinate. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  latter  case,  let  us  see  how 
far  its  employment  as  a  means  of  effect  is  legitimate,  es- 
pecially when  printed  from  a  separate  negative  tg  the  land- 
scape to  which  it  is  joined  in  the  finished  print;  the  only 
way,  in  my  opinion,  by  which  the  fullest  value  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  utmost  amount  of  pictorial  effect  can  be  pro- 
duced ;  and  that  not  by  blind  chance,  of  which  Ruskin  tells 
us  to  be  independent — as  would  be  the  case  if  taken  with  the 
landscape — but  with  that  certainty  which  a  knowledge  of  art 
gives  to  its  votaries.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  give  any 
definite  instruction  for  the  use  of  the  sky,  as  the  readers  of 
these  articles  should,  by  this  time,  or  will  after  they  have 
read  the  chapters  on  chiaro-oscuro  which  are  to  come,  be  able 
to  artistically  apply  an  object  that  is  infinitely  varied,  and, 
being  ever  changing  in  its  light  and  shade  and  form,  is  suited 
to  all  circumstances  of  composition. 

Many  ingenious  arrangements  have  been  devised  for  the 


52  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

purpose  of  securing  the  sky  on  the  same  plate  as  the  land- 
scape, and  I  believe  there  are  now,  in  many  instances,  no 
chemical  or  mechanical  difficulties,  in  securing 'the  two  by 
one  operation,  which  a  clever  photographer  could  not  suc- 
cessfully combat,  but  before  you  cook  your  hare  you  must 
first  catch  it.  Now,  however  natural  any  sky  that  may  hap- 
pen to  be  in  the  heavens  at  the  time  the  photograph  is  being 
taken,  it  only  occasionally  occurs  that  it  is  the  best,  or  nearly 
the  best  for  pictorial  effect.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  for  the 
operator  to  select  a  sky  that  will  best  suit  his  picture  \  and  in 
doing  this  he  must  have  a  sufficiently  critical  knowledge  of 
Nature,  and  the  various  phases  she  assumes,  to  prevent  him 
from  departing  from  the  truth  of  nature.  He  must  keep 
strictly  to  the  truth  of  nature — that  is  absolutely  imperative — 
but  he  may  select  the  best  and  most  picturesque  nature  he 
can  get.  The  intelligent  student  will  be  ever  on  the  look- 
out for  what  is  beautiful,  and,  when  he  sees  a  fine  effect,  he 
will  always  examine  the  causes  by  which  it  is  produced,  and 
note  them  in  his  pocket-book,  although  he  may  not  have  his 
camera  with  him  at  the  time. 

What  the  photographer  has  to  do,  then,  is  to  select  and  use 
a  probable  sky  to  increase  the  beauty  of  his  work ;  but  it 
must  be  such  a  sky  as  would  render  it  impossible,  not  only 
for  the  carping  critic,  but  also  the  real  man  of  science,  to  say 
it  is  not  true.  It  must,  indeed,  be  so  true  as  to  defy  the  ad- 
verse criticism,  as  a  fact,  of  the  most  learned  meteorologist. 
Surely  no  very  impossible  task  to  an  observing  student  ! 

While  the  foreground  of  a  picture  should  contain  the  key- 
note of  the  composition,  the  sky  should  always  preserve  har- 
monious relation  to  the  whole  picture.  The  various  effects 
of  cloud  and  sky  which  may  be  introduced  in  landscape  pho- 
tography afford  a  vast  scope  for  the  display  of  the  art  capacity 
of  the  operator.    He  can,  by  a  well-chosen  effect,  bring  an 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  53 

otherwise  unimportant  and  somewhat  tame  distance  into  bet- 
ter keeping  with  the  remainder  of  the  picture ;  he  can  by  its 
means  supply  a  deficiency  in  some  of  the  most  important 
lines  of  the  composition ;  or  he  can,  especially  in  pictures 
with  figures  in  the  foreground,  use  an  effect  of  cloud  or 
atmosphere  to  give  not  only  relief  to  the  principal  object, 
but  to  correct  the  foreground  and  the  distance ;  for  although 
the  sky  is  really  behind  the  picture,  still  it  may  form  the 
connecting-link  between  any  two  grades  of  color  or  masses 
of  light  and  shade. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  LEGITIMACY  OF  SKIES  IN  PHOTOGRAPHS. 

The  doctrine  once  set  forth  by  the  matter-of-fact  school 
of  critics — now,  happily,  nearly  extinct — who  endeavored, 
unsuccessfully,  to  teach  that  anything  beyond  mechanical 
copying  or  dull  map-making  was  heresy  in  photography, 
concerning  the  impropriety  of  using  any  other  sky  in  a  pho- 
tograph— or,  indeed,  as  it  must  naturally  follow,  in  any 
other  picture — than  that  which  was  actually  presented  at  the 
moment  of  taking  the  rest  of  the  picture,  although  of  so  little 
importance  as  to  be  scarcely  worthy  of  notice,  yet  demands  a 
few  words,  as  it  may  have  a  detrimental  effect  on  the  unthink- 
ing, or  those  whose  faith  is  not  quite  confirmed  in  photog- 
raphy as  an  art. 

That  this  doctrine  is  utterly  wrong,  is  capable  of  easy  dem- 
onstration. It  is,  indeed,  so  absurd,  the  wonder  is  that  it 
should  have  ever  found  its  way  to  the  light.  It  would  be  quite 
beside  my  present  purpose,  or  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work, 
to  enter  into  any  elaborate  discussion  upon  the  point ;  but  it 


54  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

will  be  enough  to  remind  the  student  that  if  the  idea  be 
carried  out  in  the  manner  advocated  by  the  school  above 
mentioned,  it  comes  to  this ;  any  landscape  is  equally  beau- 
tiful at  all  times,  and,  notwithstanding  it  may  be  seen  under 
various  aspects,  a  photograph  of  it,  if  absolutely  accurate, 
will,  in  virtue  of  its  accuracy,  be  a  work  of  the  highest  art  j 
so  that  art  becomes  no  more  than  a  mere  servile  copying  of 
nature,  without  even  the  slightest  reference  to  the  aspect 
under  which  nature  is  seen.  This  doctrine  would  reduce  all 
photographs  and  all  photographers  to  one  dead  level ;  but  the 
mind  refuses  to  accept  a  dull,  flat  reproduction  of  common- 
place nature  with  the  same  satisfaction  and  pleasure  as  a 
brilliant,  harmonious,  well-selected,  and  well-lighted  passage, 
on  which  the  artist  has  expended  all  the  resources  of  his  art. 
And  the  end  to  be  obtained  by  art  is  pleasure.  "  Pleasure," 
says  Mr.  Dallas,  in  his  admirable  book,  The  Gay  Science, 
"  pleasure  is  the  end  of  all  art."  It  would  occupy  too  much 
space  here  to  enter  into  the  argument  why  this  is  so.  This, 
the  text  of  his  book,  is  argued  in  the  affirmative  through  two 
volumes  of  brilliant  writing  and  profound  thought,  and  we 
may  accept  the  axiom.  The  highest  aim  of  art,  therefore,  is 
to  render  nature,  not  only  with  the  greatest  truth,  but  in  its  ! 
most  pleasing  aspect ;  to  show  forth  the  storm  in  its  grandeur,  j 
or  to  gladden  the  eye  with  the  smile  of  Nature's  light.  Truth 
may  be  obtained  without  art.  The  exact  representation  of 
unselected  nature  is  truth ;  the  same  of  well-selected  nature 
is  truth  and  beauty.    The  former  is  not  art,  the  latter  is. 

It  is  the  fashion  with  the  matter-of-fact  critics  to  quote  pas- 
sages from  the  writings  of  Mr.  Ruskin,  and  twist  their  mean- 
ing to  their  own  use.  In  his  lessons  to  beginners,  this  eloquent 
writer  recommends  them,  at  that  early  stage,  to  copy  nature 
accurately,  pebble  for  pebble,  and  leaf  for  leaf ;  neither  to  1 
suppress  nor  alter  in  even  the  most  minute  particulars.  This 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  55 

he  does  very  wisely,  because  the  pupil  has  not  yet  learned  to 
select ;  but  when  he  writes  for  artists,  he  writes  in  a  very  dif- 
ferent strain.  In  Modern  Painters,  he  calls  the  pleasure  re- 
sulting from  imitation  the  most  contemptible  that  can  be 
derived  from  art.  ' '  Ideas  of  imitation, ' '  he  says,  1 '  act  by  pro- 
ducing the  simple  pleasure  of  surprise,  and  that  not  in  surprise 
in  its  higher  sense  and  function,  but  of  the  mean  and  paltry 
surprise  which  is  felt  in  jugglery.  These  ideas  and  pleasures 
are  the  most  contemptible  which  can  be  received  from  art ; 
first,  because  it  is  necessary  to  their  enjoyment  that  the  mind 
should  reject  the  impression  and  address  of  the  thing  repre- 
sented, and  fix  itself  only  upon  the  reflection  that  it  is  not 
what  it  seems  to  be.  All  high  or  noble  emotion  or  thought  is 
thus  rendered  physically  impossible,  while  the  mind  exults  in 
what  is  very  like  a  strictly  sensual  pleasure."  This  is  only 
one  of  many  arguments  (too  long  to  quote)  he  brings  to  bear 
against  the  mere  literal,  photographic  rendering  of  nature, 
without  the  addition  of  that  soul  or  feeling  which  the  mind  of 
man  can  throw  into  his  work,  be  it  painting  or  photograph. 

There  is  comfort  for  the  artist  photographer,  also,  in  the 
fact  that  Turner  —  who,  in  the  opinion  of  Ruskin  and  many 
other  writers,  could  do  nothing  artistically  wrong,  or  depart 
in  any  way  from  nature — not  only  improved  nature  by  twist- 
ing his  views  out  of  all  resemblance  to  the  localities  they  were 
intended  to  represent,  but  actually  studied  many  of  his  best 
skies  from  the  end  of  Margate  Jetty,  and  afterwards  fitted 
them  to  any  picture  he  thought  they  would  suit. 

I  may  here  quote  an  anecdote  related  by  Burnet  of  Turner, 
which  is  applicable  to  this  question  :  "  Driving  down  to  his 
house  (Woodburn's),  at  Hendon,  a  beautiful  sunset  burst 
forth.  Turner  asked  to  stop  the  carriage,  and  remained  a  long 
time  in  silent  contemplation.  Some  weeks  afterwards,  when 
Woodburn  called  upon  him  in  Queen  Anne  Street,  he  saw  this 


56  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

identical  sky  in  his  gallery,  and  wished  to  have  a  landscape 
added  to  it.  Turner  refused  the  commission ;  he  would  not 
part  with  it.  Wilkie  used  to  call  these  studies  his  '  stock-in- 
trade.  '  His  skies  look  like  transcripts  of  nature,  but  they  are 
the  result  and  remembrances  of  his  contemplation.  They  are 
composed  of  many  combinations  and  changes  in  the  heavens, 
drawn  from  the  retentive  stores  of  his  memory;  they  are 
adapted  to  the  picture  in  hand  by  the  different  qualities  re- 
quired. If  the  subject  is  indifferent,  he  trusts  to  the  richness 
and  composition  of  the  sky  to  give  it  interest ;  and  if  the 
scene  is  complicated,  and  consists  of  many  parts,  he  makes 
use  of  the  sky  as  the  seat  of  repose." 

It  must  be  remembered  that  nature  is  not  all  alike  equally 
beautiful,  but  it  is  the  artist's  part  to  represent  it  in  the  most 
beautiful  manner  possible ;  so  that,  instead  of  its  being  death 
to  the  artist  to  make  pictures  which  shall  be  admired  by  all 
who  see  them,  it  is  the  very  life  and  whole  duty  of  an  artist  to 
keep  down  what  is  base  in  his  work,  to  support  its  weak  parts, 
and,  in  those  parts  which  are  subject  to  constant  changes  of 
aspect,  to  select  those  particular  moments  for  the  representa- 
tion of  the  subject  when  it  shall  be  seen  to  its  greatest  possible 
advantage. 

I  have  not,  in  this  work,  advocated  the  use  of  artificial 
skies,  or  painting  in  skies,  on  the  negative,  although  I  believe 
in  the  legitimacy  of  either  method,  and  it  is  the  constant 
practice  of  our  best  landscape  photographers — Bedford,  Eng- 
land, Mudd ;  need  I  mention  more  ? — to  improve  their  nega- 
tives, in  the  sky  and  other  parts,  with  the  brush.  I  have  not 
done  so,  because  I  believe  the  natural  sky,  added  from  a  sep- 
arate negative,  to  give  the  most  complete  results ;  but  I  see 
no  reason  whatever  why  the  negative  should  not  be  improved, 
if  it  is  found  neeessary,  without  any  departure  from  truth. 

Before  photography  was  discovered,  artists  used  to  paint 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  57 

skies  to  their  pictures;  indeed,  they  then,  as  now,  painted 
their  whole  pictures ;  but  now  that  photography  has  asserted 
its  claim  to  mechanical  accuracy  in  its  transcripts  of  nature, 
there  have  sprung  up  with  it  a  class  of  men  who  would  have 
us  believe  that  to  touch  a  photograph  with  a  paint-brush  is 
almost  the  greatest  sin  a  man  can  commit,  and  they  would 
hardly  shrink  from  even  taxing  a  man  with  immorality  and 
want  of  religious  principle  who,  having  taken  a  good  photo- 
graph, should,  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  pencil  judiciously  ap- 
plied, make  it,  as  well  as  a  good  photograph,  a  good  picture. 

In  conclusion,  I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  part  of  a  letter 
on  the  sky,  in  the  Photographic  Neivs,  by  an  admirable  writer, 
who,  under  the  nom  de plume  of  "  Respice  Finem,"  favors  us 
too  seldom  with  his  views  on  our  art ;  after  which  let  us  turn 
to  the  consideration  of  something  more  practical. 

"  The  clouds  have  to  play  a  far  more  important  part  in  pho- 
tographic landscapes  than  they  have  yet  done.  I  do  not  say 
that  a  photograph  without  a  sky,  or  with  a  mass  of  white  for 
a  sky,  is  altogether  unnatural ;  but  to  me  it  is  very  tame,  in- 
sipid, and  unpoetical.  How  a  photographer  with  a  concep- 
tion of  the  enormous  resources  he  possesses  in  the  clouds  can 
ever  neglect  them  in  his  landscapes,  I  cannot  understand .  They 
have  such  a  varied  beauty  in  themselves ;  they  give  to  the 
artist  such  a  command  in  balancing  and  harmonizing  his 
composition ;  if  well  managed,  they  so  assist  everything  else 
in  taking  its  place,  that  I  cannot  understand  their  frequent 
neglect  by  the  photographer.  One  reason  is,  I  know,  the 
difficulty  in  securing  them  in  the  same  negative  as  the  fore- 
ground. If  I  am  right  in  my  former  letter  on  the  legitimacy 
of  combination  in  photography,  then  there  should  not  be  a 
second  opinion  as  to  the  propriety  of  using  a  second  negative, 
looking  to  it,  however,  that  the  clouds  harmonize  with  the 
picture,  and  involve  no  impossibility  or  practical  solecism. 


58  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

To  avoid  this,  a  careful  and  constant  study  of  nature,  as  well 
as  art,  will  be  necessary.  Heed  not,  I  would  say  to  the  pho- 
tographer, the  thoughtless  objector  or  bogus  critic,  who  tells 
you  that  the  landscape  can  only  harmonize  with  that  sky  with 
which  it  was  illumined  when  you  obtained  your  negative. 
Remember  that  the  portion  of  the  sky  which  produces  lights 
or  shadows  on  your  landscape  is  rarely  that  which  the  eye 
sees  in  looking  at  that  landscape.  How  far  this  is  true,  you 
will  ascertain  by  the  study  of  nature ;  and  of  all  the  studies 
of  beauty  known  to  man,  there  is  none  so  grand,  so  lofty, 
and  so  varied,  as  the  study  of  the  aspects  of  the  sky  and  the 
glories  of  the  clouds.  And  when,  with  Ruskin,  you  have 
gazed  on  a  glorious  sunset,  '  through  its  purple  lines  of  lifted 
cloud,  casting  a  new  glory  on  every  wreath  as  it  passes  by, 
until  the  whole  heaven,  one  scarlet  canopy,  is  interwoven 
with  a  roof  of  waving  flame,  and  tossing  vault  beyond  vault, 
as  with  the  drifted  wings  of  many  companies  of  angels  ;  and 
then,  when  you  can  look  no  more  for  gladness,  and  when 
you  are  bowed  down  with  fear  and  love  of  the  Maker  and 
Doer  of  this,  tell  me  who  has  best  delivered  his  message 
unto  men.'  " 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  59 


I      CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  FIGURE. 

Any  very  obvious  geometrical  form,  either  in  masses  of  light 
and  shade,  or  bounded  by  lines,  would  necessarily  be  a  defect 
of  arrangement ;  but  a  certain  degree  of  regularity,  such  as 
that  arising  from  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  rules  of  compo- 
sition, and  resulting  from  the  concentration  and  grouping 
together  of  the  parts,  is,  undoubtedly,  greatly  to  be  preferred 
to  that  kind  of  irregularity  which  would  be  made  apparent  by 
the  promiscuous  scattering  of  objects  over  the  plane  of  the 
picture. 

It  may  be  objected,  that  few  landscapes  will  fall  into  these 
convenient  forms  for  the  benefit  of  the  photographer.  This 
I  am  quite  ready  to  admit ;  but  when  he  is  acquainted  with 
those  forms  that  are  known  to  produce  picturesqueness,  he 
will  be  ready  to  take  advantage  of  accidents  of  position  and 
of  the  various  effects  produced  by  light  and  shade  at  different 
times  of  the  day.  Besides,  forms  of  objects  alter  with  the 
point  from  which  they  are  observed.  Twining,  who  has  writ- 
ten a  readable  if  not  very  practical  treatise  on  the  philosophy 
of  painting,  says  :  "  Form  itself  depends,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  the  position  selected  by  the  observer,  on  the  direction  of 
the  lights,  and  the  transparency  or  mistiness  of  the  atmosphere. 
From  such  causes  as  these  the  mountains  may  become  more 
elevated,  the  plains  more  vast ;  depth,  space,  and  distance 
may  be  increased  ;  and  the  artist,  who  thus  adds  to  the  grand- 
eur or  beauty  of  a  subject,  by  availing  himself  of  means  bor- 
rowed from  Nature  herself,  instead  of  tantalizing  the  mind, 


60  pictorial  Effect  in  photography. 

and  engendering  an  admiration  based,  in  a  great  measure,  on 
ignorance  in  matters  of  art,  instructs,  at  the  same  time  he 
diverts,  his  admirers."  This  is  equally  true  for  the  photog- 
rapher as  for  the  painter. 

But  if  the  landscape  will  not  arrange  itself  at  the  photog- 
rapher's bidding,  he  has  more  power  and  command  over  his 
materials  when  his  subject  is  a  figure  or  a  group.  If  he  be 
not  perfect  master  of  the  expression  of  his  sitter — and  some 
photographers  show  by  their  works  that  a  complete  command 
of  that  most  difficult  thing  is  possible — he  has  in  his  hands 
the  possibility  in  a  very  great  degree  of  governing  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  lines  and  the  light  and  shade.  If  he  find  several 
lines  running  in  one  direction,  he  has  the  opportunity  of  alter- 
ing the  position  of  the  body  or  the  drapery  so  as  to  create 
opposing  lines,  and  he  has  great  scope  in  the  artistic  arrange- 
ment of  the  accessories  and  background  in  preserving  balance, 
either  by  lines,  or  light  and  shade ;  and  yet  how  often  are 
these  advantages  neglected,  or,  rather,  how  very  seldom  are 
they  employed  !  For  many  years  (and,  indeed,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent at  the  present  time)  a  plain  background  without  gradation 
was  looked  upon  as  very  successful  work,  and  nothing  but 
insipid  and  monotonous  smoothness  was  aimed  at  by  photog- 
raphers, with  the  exception  of  those  who  already  had  a  feeling 
for  the  picturesque,  or  those  who  were  not  too  proud  to  take 
a  lesson  from  the  works  of  others.  It  is  encouraging  to  see 
that  many  photographers  are  alive  to  the  necessity  of  doing 
something  more  creditable  to  the  art ;  and  the  many  imita- 
tions that  have  been  shown  in  recent  exhibitions — although 
few  of  them  have  yet  risen  above  the  level  of  mere  imitation, 
or  at  all  approached  the  great  originals — of  the  productions 
of  M.  Adam-Salomon  give  indication  that  some  improvement 
may  be  expected. 

Tt  is  always  well,  when  possible,  to  teach  by  example,  and  I 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


61 


append  an  outline  of  a  well-known  portrait,  of  which  large 
quantities  have  been  distributed,  chiefly  because  of  the  celeb- 
rity of  the  subject,  and  partly,  no  doubt,  because  of  the 
excellence  of  the  technical  qualities  of  the  photograph.  I  do 
not  indicate  this  picture  more  distinctly,  because  I  think  that 
when  I  feel  compelled  to  use  any  particular  photograph  as 
' 'an  awful  example,"  it  is  scarcely  fair  to  the  author  to  men- 
tion his  name,  although  my  remarks  would  be  more  easily 
understood  if  the  original  could  be  placed  before  the  student 
instead  of  an  outline  wood-cut. 

It  will  be  seen  that  most  of  the  lines,  although  not  parallel, 
run  in  one  direction.     There  is  no  balance  whatever,  no 


variety  of  lines,  no  relief,  and  the  space  behind  the  figure  is 
"to  let. ' '  There  is  no  employment  for  so  much  space,  except 
to  make  the  picture  the  regulation  size.  The  background  in 
'the  original  is  perfectly  plain — one  unbroken  tone  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom.  You  see  any  part  of  the  picture  as  soon 
as,  or  before,  you  see  the  head,  and  the  figure  appears  to  be 


/ 


Fig.  13. 


62  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


inlaid,  or  sunk  into  the  background.  It  would  have  taken  no 
trouble  to  alter  all  this  if  the  operator  had  possessed  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  art,  and,  what  is  quite 
as  necessary  when  engaged  with  an  eminent  sitter,  the  presence 
of  mind  to  use  it.  This,  or  a  similar  position,  more  full- 
faced,  one  hand  on  a  table  and  the  other  on  the  knee,  is  to 
be  seen  in  nine  out  of  every  ten  photographs  of  the  sitting 
figure  ;  in  fact,  it  appears  to  be  the  traditional  position  of  the 
photographic  sitter  handed  down  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
religiously  followed  by  photographers  who  are  not  observers, 
or  who  do  not  know  how  to  invent  positions  for  themselves. 
But,  supposing  it  necessary  to  maintain  the  figure  in  nearly 
the  same  position  as  that  in  the  sketch,  what  should  have 
been  done  to  produce  a  more  agreeable  composition  ?  A 
very  slight  change  in  one  of  the  accessories  would  have  done 
nearly  all  that  was  required.  At  present  the  lines  run  nearly 
in  the  same  direction,  without  anyopposing  lines  to  balance 
them,  and  there  is  a  space  behind  the  figure  that  requires 
filling,  while  the  table  and  vase  carry  the  eye  out  of  the 
picture  to  the  left,  and  overcrowd  that  side  of  the  composi- 
tion. If  the  table  had  been  moved  to  the  right  side  of  the 
picture,  stability  would  have  been  given  to  the  figure  ;  the 
numerous  weak  and  almost  similar  curves  of  the  figure  and 
chair  would  have  been  opposed  by  the  straight  lines  of  the 
table,  the  space  that  was  to  let  would  have  been  filled,  the 
lines  of  the  figure  would  have  been  properly  balanced,  and 
the  table,  which  crowded  the  left  of  the  picture,  would  be 
doing  service  to  the  general  effect,  and  the  figure,  although 
turned  slightly  away  from  it,  would  still  have  the  effect  of 
being  seated  naturally  near  the  table  ;  while  if  some  attention 
to  light  and  shade  and  gradation  had  been  observed  in  the 
background,  everything  would  have  been  brought  into  har- 
mony.   There  is  another  defect  which  should  be  carefullv 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  63 

avoided;  the  curves  of  the  chair-back  exactly  follow  the 
curves  of  the  arm. 

As  a  contrast  to  the  foregoing,  I  introduce  a  little  sketch 
by  Sir  Noel  Paton,  in  which  it  will  be  observed  that  balance 
has  been  strictly  considered,  and  the  figure  is  admirably  sup- 
ported. Notice  how  the  lines  of  the  leaning  figure  are  con- 
trasted by  those  of  the  arms,  and,  for  fear  these  should  not 
be  sufficient,  two  trees  have  been  introduced,  to  perform  the 
same  function  in  the  composition.    And  the  hat  and  plants 


on  the  ground  perform  the  part  of  the  point  of  dark  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  chapters  on  landscape. 

This  simple  little  figure  serves  very  admirably  to  show  the 
difference  between  a  figure  represented  "just  as  it  sat,"  and 
a  picture  produced  by  one  who  conforms  to  the  rules  of  art. 


64  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PYRAMIDAL  FORMS. 

Having,  in  the  last  chapter,  had  a  slight  glimpse  of  the 
value  of  a  knowledge  of  composition  in  arranging  a  figure,  we 
now  come  to  a  consideration  of  pyramidal  forms,  a  method 
of  composition  very  suitable  to  single  figures  and  groups. 

It  is,  perhaps,  as  well  to  begin  with  a  complete  subject ;  • 
therefore,  as  an  example  containing  almost  every  element 
of  formal  artistic  composition,  and  as  a  subject  to  which  it 
will  be  useful  to  return  again  and  again  for  the  illustration 
of  various  points  to  be  commented  upon,  I  have  selected 
Wilkie's  "  Blind  Fiddler  "  for  my  illustration.  Well  known 
and  familiar  as  it  is  to  all,  there  is  scarcely  another  picture  in 
the  whole  range  of  art  so  useful  to  the  teacher,  or  from  which 
the  student  of  the  art  of  picture-making  could  learn  so  much. 
This  is  not  because  of  the  subtilty  or  ingenuity  of  the  ar- 
rangement, but  quite  the  reverse.  To  those  who  have  the 
slightest  inkling  of  composition,  the  art  displayed  is  very 
noticeable,  defying  the  teaching  of  those  who  say  "  the 
greatest  art  is  to  conceal  the  art,"  and  that  all  the  artist  has 
to  do  to  produce  a  work  of  art  is  to  take  a  bit  of  nature,  no 
matter  what,  and  imitate  it  faithfully. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  maxim  that  the  art  should  be 
concealed  is  good  enough ;  but  it  is  one  of  those  rules  that 
the  student  should  use  with  judgment,  or  it  will  cripple  him. 
It  should  be  taken  in  the  sense  of  a  protest  against  academical 
formality.  Burnet  says,  on  this  subject,  "  Concealing  the 
art  is  one  of  its  greatest  beauties ;  and  he  best  can  accomplish 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  65 


that  who  can  discover  it  under  all  its  disguises.  I  ought, 
however,  to  caution  the  young  artist,  on  this  hand,  not  to  be 


too  fastidious  in  trying  to  conceal  what  can  be  obvious  only 
to  a  small  number ;  for  in  endeavoring  to  render  his  design 
more  intricate  he  may  destroy  character,  simplicity,  and 

t 


66  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


breadth — qualities  which  affect  and  are  appreciated  by  every- 
one." 

As  regards  composition,  the  pictures  of  Wilkie  may  be  taken 
as  safe  guides  by  the  student.  Artists  of  every  shade  of  opin- 
ion unite  in  regarding  them  in  this  one  respect  as  perfect. 
Even  Haydon,  whose  enthusiasm  for  grand  art,  and  contempt 
for  subjects  of  a  domestic  character,  almost  amounted  to 
insanity,  acknowledges  that,  as  an  artist,  Wilkie  will  be  a 
teacher  and  an  example  forever.  Speaking  of  this  great  artist, 
in  one  of  his  lectures  he  says,  "  His  composition  is  perfection ; 
there  the  youth  may  consider  him  infallible;  it  was  the  com- 
position of  Raffaele  in  a  coarser  style."  And  adds,  "My 
not  seeing  the  beauty  of  his  works  at  first  was  entire  ignorance ; 
as  my  knowledge  increased,  my  admiration  went  with  it: 
exactly  as  I  understood  Raffaele,  I  understood  the  beauty  of 
Wilkie'sart." 

The  "Blind  Fiddler,"  as  far  as  the  arrangement  of  its 
materials  is  concerned,  would  have  been  possible  in  photog- 
raphy ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  picture  of  which  a  long  study  and 
analysis  will  much  benefit  the  photographer. 

The  composition  consists  of  a  series  of  pyramids  built  upon, 
and  combined  with,  one  another.  The  fiddler  himself  forms 
a  pyramid,  and,  being  the  motive  of  the  picture,  he  is  more 
isolated  than  any  other  figure,  which  gives  him  greater  promi- 
nence, although  he  is  not  the  chief  mass  of  light;  so  that 
what  Ruskin  rather  fantastically  calls  the  "  law  of  principality  " 
is  observed.  But  he  is  not  left  quite  alone,  but  is  connected 
with  the  principal  group  by  the  figures  of  his  wife  and  child, 
and  the  basket  at  his  feet.  This  basket  is  made  light  to  strike 
the  eye,  partly  to  unite  the  two  groups,  but  chiefly  because 
it  is  the  supporting  point  of  the  angle  of  which  the  old  grand- 
father's head  in  the  centre  is  the  apex,  and  which  is  lead  up 
to  by  the  boy  in  shadow  warming  his  hands  at  the  fire.  The 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  67 

two  little  girls  form  a  pyramid,  and  so  do  the  mother  and 
child,  supported  by  the  dog,  which  is  again  continued  by  the 
man  snapping  his  fingers,  again  by  the  old  man,  who  caps  and 
perfects  the  whole  group.  Notice  particularly  how  the  line 
of  one  side  of  the  pyramid  formed  by  the  mother  and  child 
is  carried  on  by  the  stick  in  the  little  girl's  hand.  All  the 
figures  are  connected  together  in  one  grand  pyramid  by  the 
dark  and  light  spots  formed  by  the  cooking  utensils  over  the 
fireplace ;  and  the  diagonal  line  is  still  further  carried  on  by 
the  slanting  beam  to  the  left,  which,  again,  is  balanced  by  the 
steps  leading  to  the  door.  The  perpendicular  lines  of  the 
wall  give  stability  to  the  composition,  and  the  group  of  kitchen 
utensils  and  vegetables  in  the  foreground,  being  darker  than 
any  other  part,  give  delicacy  and  distance,  as  well  as  scale,  to 
the  rest  of  the  picture,  and,  by  contrast,  perfect  balance  to  the 
group.  I  have  pointed  out  the  leading  lines  only  of  this  famous 
picture,  sufficient  to  guide  the  student  in  his  further  analysis 
of  its  governing  forms ;  but  he  will  discover  that  there  is  not 
a  line,  however  insignificant,  that  has  not  its  equipoise  and 
contrast ;  not  two  articles  together  but  what  have  others  added 
to  form  the  group.  A  good  example  of  this  will  be  seen  in 
the  way  the  sieve  and  frying-pan  on  the  wall  are  connected 
together  and  grouped  by  the  gridiron  and  cup,  which  subordi- 
nate group  is  connected  with  others,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
whole  composition.  I  shall  return  to  it  again,  to  help  my 
explanation  of  other  details  of  composition,  such  as  repeti- 
tion, harmony,  and  repose. 

What  could  be  more  formal,  regular,  and  artificial  than  this 
group,  and  yet  what  more  entirely  natural  ?  If  art — art  regu- 
lated by  laws — were  antagonistic  to  nature,  this  would  not 
have  been  the  most  popular  picture  of  its  year,  1806;  nor 
would  it  have  retained  its  popularity,  and  become,  as  it  per- 
haps is,  the  best-known  picture  ever  painted  in  England. 


68  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

VARIETY  AND  REPETITION. 

Notwithstanding  the  formality  of  the  composition  of  the 
"  Blind  Fiddler,"  the  great  quality  without  which  no  pictorial 
arrangement  can  be  complete — variety — is  present  in  a  very 
marked  degree.  This  is  very  noticeable  in  the  disposition  of 
the  heads  and  leading  points,  as  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  by 
the  following  diagram,  in  which  they  are  set  forth ;  as  will 
also  the  pyramidal  forms  of  the  groups,  and  the  way  in  which 
they  fall  in  with  and  harmonize  one  another,  continually  pil- 
ing up  until  they  form  one  great  irregular  pyramid,  supported 
by  the  group  of  dark  objects  in  the  front.  The  extreme  care 
Wilkie  has  taken  to  get  his  pyramid  complete  will  be  seen  in 
the  disposition  of  the  fiddler's  bundle  and  stick  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  spinning-wheel  on  the  other.  Every  variety 
of  aspect  in  the  heads  is  given,  from  the  full  face  of  the 
grandfather  to  the  back  of  the  head  of  the  fiddler's  son 
warming  his  hands  at  the  fire.  Every  position  is  represented 
— standing,  stooping,  leaning,  sitting,  lying — as  well  as  every 
degree  of  expression,  from  lively  action  to  repose,  "from 
grave  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe and  every  age,  from  the 
octogenarian  to  the  infant,  youth  being  directly  opposed  to 
age  in  the  centre  of  the  group. 

That  variety  is  a  necessity  in  good  composition  is  so  appar- 
ent that  it  need  scarcely  be  dwelt  upon  at  any  length.  It 
must  be  obvious  that  the  reverse  of  variety — that  is,  monotony 
— would  be  fatal.    One  definition  of  composition  might  be, 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

« 


69 


that  it  teaches  the  proper  use  of  variety.  A  line  running  in 
a  given  direction  must  be  balanced  and  opposed  by  a  counter- 
acting line.  Full  faces  in  a  group  should  be  varied  with  three- 
quarter  and  profile  heads.  A  line  of  heads  "all  of  a  row," 
as  is  too  often  seen  in  photographs  even  by  the  best  photog- 
raphers, is  jarring  to  a  sensitive  taste,  and  is  an  offence  to  art. 
So  also  with  figures  dotted  about  a  landscape  without  purpose, 
disturbing  repose  by  directing  the  eye  to  objects  which  are 
out  of  all  harmony  with  the  view  represented. 

Variety  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  picturesqueness  and 
beauty.  This  quality  alone  would  make  a  dead  flat  interest- 
ing. The  ever-varying  lines  of  the  waves — varying,  however, 
according  to  regular  laws — make  the  level  and  otherwise  tame 
and  monotonous  ocean  a  constant  fascination.  No  tree,  how- 
ever finely  grown  and  vigorous,  presenting  an  unbroken  mass 
of  foliage,  will  interest  the  artist  so  much  as  others,  inferior 
although  they  may  be  in  size,  but  presenting  variety  in  their 
outline  and  intricacy  in  their  details.  Without  variety  of 
form  there  cannot  be  variety  of  light  and  shade. 

Notwithstanding  the  absolute  necessity  of  variety,  as  one 
of  the  chief  sources  of  beauty,  it  may  be,  and  frequently  is, 
carried  to  excess.  All  great  painters  have  guarded  against 
this  by  introducing  the  opposing  element  to  variety — repeti- 
tion— repetition  as  an  echo,  not  that  resemblance  which  pro- 
duces monotony.  Picturesque  effect  will  allow,  and  demands, 
a  greater  amount  of  variety  than  does  the  higher  form  of 
nature — beauty — which  appears  to  require  a  greater  amount 
of  simplicity  for  its  success. 

Variety  of  attitude  should  be  studied  for  the  sake  of  con- 
trast ;  but  simplicity,  especially  in  photographs,  must  not  be 
lost;  the  peculiarity  of  the  art  itself  supplies  sufficient  intri- 
cacy and  detail.  No  amount  of  ingenuity  in  varying  the 
positions  and  aspects  of  the  figures  will  compensate  for  loss 


v 


70  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

I 

of  simplicity  and  repose.  Photography  does  not  admit  of 
much  action.    In  painting,  the  model  is  forgotten ;  in  pho- 

O 

O  O 


tography,  it  is  different.    It  is  well  known  to  everybody  that 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  71 

the  figures  represented  actually  stood  for  some  seconds  in  the 
attitude  shown — except,  indeed,  in  instantaneous  pictures, 
where  art  often  has  to  accept  much  from  chance  (we  cannot 
get  away  from  that  fact,  even  if  we  desire  to  do  so) — whilst 
painting  or  drawing  represents  something  that  need  not  have 
been  seen  for  more  than  an  instant  by  the  artist;  indeed,  it  is 
not  necessary,  to  the  enjoyment  of  a  painting,  to  know  that 
the  original  ever  existed. 

Simplicity,  symmetry,  and  uniformity,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  are  not  antagonistic  to  variety,  but  are,  in  the  exten- 
sive scale  of  nature,  highly  conductive  to  it,  especially  in 
scenes  composed  of  many  objects.  Uniformity  in  a  single 
figure  will  produce  monotony ;  but  in  a  scene  composed  of 
many  figures  it  will  add  to  the  variety,  for,  if  the  greater 
number  of  figures  be  irregular  and  varied,  the  introduction  of 
repetition  in  some  of  the  objects  will  actually  increase  the 
variety.  This  is  beautifully  illustrated  in  the  "  Blind  Fiddler," 
in  which  that  "uniformity  in  variety"  necessary  in  a  perfect 
work  of  art  is  finely  shown.  The  following  diagram  exactly 
repeats  the  lines  of  the  fiddler  and  the  woman  with  the  child 


Fig.  17. 

seated  precisely  opposite  to  him.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
position  of  the  body  is  the  same  in  each — stooping  a  little 
forward,  with  the  head  bent  down  ;  the  lines  of  the  arms,  the 
legs,  and  the  chairs  exactlv  correspond,  and  the  line  produced 


72  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

by  the  child's  arm  reaching  up  repeats  the  line  of  the  fiddle- 
stick, while  both  figures,  although  different  in  sex,  wear  caps; 
the  lines  of  the  dress  even,  especially  above  the  arms,  are 
symmetrical,  and  in  both  cases  the  back  leg  of  the  chair  is 
concealed.  This  uniformity  is  not  accidental,  but  must  have 
been  produced  deliberately  and  with  a  purpose.  There  are 
other  similar  examples  of  repetition  in  this  perfect  composi- 
tion ;  for  instance,  the  boy  imitating  the  action  of  the  fiddler 
with  the  poker  and  bellows  ;  the  delight  of  the  human  beings 
repeated  in  the  face  of  the  dog ;  and,  if 'you  like  to  be  fanci- 
ful, the  rude  art  of  the  fiddler  echoed  in  the  rude  art  of  the 
caricaturist  in  the  picture  of  the  soldier  on  the  wall. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

VARIETY  AND  REPETITION  (continued*).  "  REPOSE  ' '  

li  FITNESS. ' ' 

This  law  of  repetition  will  be  found  to  pervade  all  great 
pictures,  r^fifaps,  more  notably  in  color,  but  also,  to  a  great 
extent,  in  the  disposition  of  lines  and  light  and  shade.  The 
repetition  of  incident  is  almost  invaluable  in  telling  a  story, 
of  which  both  Wilkie  and  Hogarth  were  great  masters.  In 
Wilkie's  picture  of  the  "  First  Ear-ring,"  now  in  the  gallery 
at  South  Kensington,  in  which  a  woman  is  performing  an  act 
more  worthy  a  savage  community  than  a  civilized  nation — 
that  is,  boring  a  hole  in  a  child's  ear,  that  jewelry  may  be 
hung  in  the  flesh,  under  a  mistaken  notion  of  ornamentation 
— the  action  is  repeated,  or,  at  least,  alluded  to,  by  the  spaniel 
on  the  ground  scratching  his  ear  with  his  paw ;  and  in  the 
first  of  the  series  of  Hogarth's  great  pictorial  epic,  now  in  the 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  73 

National  Gallery — the  "  Marriage  a  la  Mode  " — the  indiffer- 
ence of  the  intended  bride  and  bridegroom,  who  turn  their 
heads  away  from  each  other,  is  repeated  in  the  two  dogs  at 
their  feet,  linked  together,  but  of  different  minds.  The  way 
in  which  Hogarth  made  insignificant  objects  perform  a  double 
purpose,  and  help  to  tell  the  story,  is  simply  wonderful.  In- 
stances must  occur  to  all  admirers  of  his  works,  and  may  be 
imitated  by  photographers.  In  Leslie's  Ha?idbook,  many  in- 
stances are  cited  ;  the  following,  referring  to  two  of  the  best 
known  works,  I  quote  :  "In  the  marriage  scene  in  his  '  Rake's 
Progress,'  in  which  the  hero,  having  dissipated  his  patrimony, 
appears  at  the  altar  with  an  ancient  heiress,  we  are  shown  the 
interior  of  Old  Marylebone  Church,  at  that  time  standing  in 
an  out-of-the-way  part  of  the  suburbs,  and  therefore  resorted 
to  for  stolen  marriages,  or  marriages  of  which  either  of  the 
parties  had  any  reason  to  be  ashamed.  The  church,  a  very 
small  one,  is  in  a  neglected  condition,  and  cracks  in  the  walls, 
mildew,  and  cobwebs  would  occur  to  an  ordinary  painter;  but 
Hogarth  has  shown  a  fracture  running  through  the  table  of 
the  Commandments :  the  Creed  is  defaced  by  damp ;  and  he 
has  placed  a  cobweb  over  the  opening  in  the  charity-box. 
Again,  an  empty  phial,  labelled  'laudanum,'  lies  at  the  feet 
of  the  expiring  viscountess,  in  the  last  scene  of  the  1  Marriage 
a  la  Mode  ;  '  but  this  is  not  enough — he  has  placed,  close  to  it, 
the  '  last  dying  speech  of  Councillor  Silver-Tongue,'  suggest- 
ing that  it  was  the  death  of  her  lover,  and  not  her  husband, 
that  caused  her  to  swallow  poison." 

Laws  become  hurtful  when  they  are  carried  to  excess,  and 
repetition  becomes  caricature  when  observed  so  closely  as  to 
verge  on  mockery.  There  is  a  curious  instance  of  this  in  one 
of  Turner's  Etchings,  reproduced  by  Ruskin,  and  commended 
in  his  Elements  of  Drawing.  In  the  foreground,  standing  on 
a  bridge,  are  a  man,  a  boy,  and  a  dog  ;  and  in  the  distance, 


74  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


at  the  top  of  the  hill,  are  a  man,  a  boy,  and  a  dog,  the  boy 
and  dog  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  those  in  the  fore- 
ground. This  is  an  example  of  repetition  and  symmetry  which 
should  not  be  repeated,  and  with  which  it  is  impossible  to 
sympathize.  In  the  same  book,  Ruskin  mentions  a  picture 
by  Vandyke,  exhibited  at  Manchester  in  1857,  representing 
three  children  in  court  dresses  of  rich  black  and  red.  The 
law  of  repetition  was  amusingly  illustrated  in  the  lower  corner 
of  the  picture,  by  the  introduction  of  two  crows,  in  a  similar 
color  of  court  dress,  having  jet  black  feathers  and  bright  red 
beaks. 

The  true  end  of  variety  is  to  give  relief  to  the  eye.  Repe- 
tition is  harmony  until  it  becomes  monotony;  then  variety 
should  step  in  to  relieve  the  tired  and  perplexed  attention. 
Deviation  from  uniformity  in  the  outlines  of  nature  gives 
greater  zest  to  the  pleasure  arising  from  the  contemplation  of 
order  and  regularity.  Alison,  in  his  essay  on  "Taste,"  ob- 
serves :  "  Beautiful  forms  must  necessarily  be  composed  both 
of  uniformity  and  variety ;  and  this  union  will  be  perfect  when 
the  proportion  of  uniformity  does  not  encroach  upon  the 
beauty  of  embellishment,  and  the  proportion  of  variety  does 
not  encroach  upon  the  beauty  of  unity."  Which  sentence, 
properly  understood,  contains  the  essence  of  the  art  of  com- 
position? 

Repetition  is  one  of  the  principal  elements  of  repose  in  art. 
No  picture  can  be  considered  to  have  attained  any  approach 
to  completeness  that  has  not  repose,  and,  for  many  reasons,  it 
is  still  more  necessary  in  photography  than  in  any  other 
means  of  representing  nature.  I  am  not  certain  that  any  per- 
fect photograph — that  is,  one  that  has  produced  a  perfect  sense 
of  completeness  in  the  beholder  —  has  ever  been  done  which 
has  not  this  quality  to  a  very  great  extent.  In  the  "Blind 
Fiddler,"  the  expression  and  use  of  repose  is  perfect.  The 


•    PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  75 

relief  given  by  the  happy  serenity  of  the  old  man  and  the 
fiddler's  wife  and  children  is  a  very  agreeable  contrast  to  the 
action  of  the  man  snapping  his  fingers,  and  the  boy  with  his 
improvised  musical  instruments. 

It  is  a  rule  in  sculpture,  that  the  right  moment  for  repre- 
sentation is  that  of  arrested  or  suspended  action.  If  photog- 
raphers would  also  observe  this  rule,  it  would  save  their  works 
from  the  risk  of  'any  appearance  of  extravagance,  or  any  sug- 
gestion that  they  represented  a  doubtful  truth. 

The  last  paragraph  suggests  that  a  word  or  two  on  what  it 
is  fit  to  represent  by  our  art  may  not  be  out  of  place  here. 

The  proper  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end  —  or,  in  other 
words,  "  fitness  " — is  a  great  source  of  beauty.  Not  only  is 
fitness  the  proper  application  of  means,  but,  especially  in  our 
art,  the  production  must  be  a  fit  result  of  the  means  employed 
to  produce  it.  Photographs  of  what  it  is  evident  to  our  senses 
cannot  visibly  exist  should  never  be  attempted.  The  ab- 
surdity of  representing  a  group  of  cherubs  floating  in  the  air, 
for  instance,  is  felt  at  once.  It  would  be  possible,  by  double 
printing,  to  make  a  very  passable  photograph  of  a  centaur  or 
a  mermaid,  but  the  photographer  would  discredit  his  art ;  he 
would  not  be  believed,  and  would  deserve  to  be  set  down 
amongst  charlatans  and  Barnums.  He  would  be  worse  than 
the  great  showman,  who,  to  his  credit,  confessed  himself  a 
humbug,  while  the  photographer  would  expect  the  world  to 
believe  his  work  to  be  a  truth.  I  am  far  from  saying  that  a 
photograph  must  be  an  actual,  literal,  and  absolute/a^;  that 
would  be  to  deny  all  I  have  written  ;  but  it  must  represent 
truth.  Truth  and  fact  are  not  only  two  words,  but,  in  art  at 
least,  they  represent  two  things.  A  fact  is  anything  done  or 
that  exists — a  reality.  Truth  is  conformity  to  fact  or  reality 
— absence  of  falsehood.  So  that  truth  in  art  may  exist  with- 
out an  absolute  observance  of  facts. 


76  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

A  great  part  of  the  emotion  of  beauty  which  we  feel  in 
regarding  nearly  all  manufactured  articles  that  aspire  to  this 
quality,  has  its  origin  in  fitness.  Decorative  beauty  depends, 
in  a  great  measure,  on  fitness,  and  the  beauty  of  proportion 
is  also  to  be  ascribed  to  this  cause.  Objects  which  are  dis- 
gusting in  themselves  may  become  beautiful  to  the  eye  which 
sees  their  usefulness  or  fitness.  For  instance,  we  hear  the 
surgeon  talk  of  a  "  beautiful  preparation,"  or  a  beautiful 
instrument. 

It  is  no  fault  in  a  photographer  that  his  art  will  not  carry 
him  as  far  as  paints  and  brushes  do  the  painter.  His  produc- 
tions would  only  be  defective  when  he  failed  to  do  what  was 
possible  in  his  art — an  art  in  some  respects  more  difficult  than 
that  of  the  painter,  because,  like  sculpture,  more  circumscribed 
and  limited.  The  photographer  must  not  let  his  invention 
tempt  him  to  represent,  by  any  trick,  any  scene  that  does 
not  occur  in  nature ;  if  he  does,  he  does  violence  to  his  art, 
because  it  is  known  that  his  finished  result  represents  some 
object  or  thing  that  has  existed  for  a  space  of  time  before  his 
camera.  But  any  "dodge,"  trick,  or  conjuration  of  any 
kind  is  open  to  the  photographer's  use  so  that  it  belongs  to  his 
art  and  is  not  false  to  nature.  If  the  dodges,  tricks,  etc., 
lead  the  photographer  astray,  so  much  the  worse  for  him  ;  if 
they  do  not  assist  him  to  represent  nature,  he  is  not  fit  to  use 
them.  It  is  not  the  fault  of  the  dodges,  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
bungler. 

To  conclude  this  subject,  the  painter  may  imagine  new 
worlds,  and  interpret  his  imagination  with  his  pencil ;  he 
may  paint  an  embodiment  of  that  which  has  not  yet  occurred, 
such  as  the  last  judgment,  for  example;  he  may  represent 
angels  and  cherubim,  and  he  does  not  commit  a  very  great 
mistake,  or  at  least  one  that  has  not  already  been  condoned 
by  artistic  opinion.    But,  on  the  contrary,  if  the  photogra- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  77 

pher — who  could,  if  he  had  the  skill,  with  the  means  at  his 
disposal,  follow  very  closely  after  the  painter  in  representing 
his  ideas  of  things  unseen — attempts  to  do  so,  he  holds  his 
art  up  to  ridicule  and  contempt,  the  reason  being  that  he 
violates  "  fitness." 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

PORTRAITURE. 

Photography  has  been  employed  to  represent  everything 
under  the  sun  and  that  is  illuminated  by  his  light ;  nay,  it  has 
gone  farther  than  this,  it  has  brought  pictures  out  of  the  caves 
of  the  earth,  where  the  light  of  heaven  never  enters,  and 
where  the  only  source  of  actinism  has  been  coiled  up  in  wire ; 
it  has  even  compelled  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  to  give  up  some 
of  their  secrets,  and  the  catacombs  of  Rome  pictures  of  their 
dead.  The  earth,  the  sea,  and  the  sky  it  delights  to  render ; 
it  multiplies  the  works  of  genius,  whether  the  original  vehicle 
has  been  paint  or  marble,  or  that  "  frozen  music"  of  which 
the  great  architects  of  old  piled  up  their  marvellous  temples. 
The  pirate  and  forger  have  called  in  its  innocent  assistance 
to  help  them  in  their  dirty  work,  but  for  which  photography 
has  returned  the  compliment  by  assisting  justice  to  execute 
the  law ;  and  so  truthful  does  the  law  consider  its  evidence, 
that  it  is  accepted  as  an  unquestionable  witness  which  it 
would  be  useless  to  cross-examine.  It  helps  the  trader  to 
advertise  his  wares,  it  aids  the  astronomer  to  map  the  stars, 
and  compels  magnetism  to  write  its  own  autograph  ;  and  all 
this  in  such  a  way  as  no  other  has  ever  yet  approached.  But 
of  all  the  use  to  which  it  has  been  put  to  benefit  and  delight 
mankind,  none  can  compare  with  its  employment  for  por- 


78  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

traiture,  the  chief  object  to  which  its  inventors  intended  it  to 
be  applied,  and  for  which  it  appears  to  be  most  thoroughly 
adapted. 

The  portrait  has  always  been  the  favorite  picture  with  the 
world.  It  is  an  especial  favorite  in  England,  because  it  ap- 
peals to  the  domestic  sympathies ;  and  this  is  the  most  domes- 
tic nation  on  earth.  Johnson  is  reported  to  have  said  he 
would  rather  have  the  portrait  of  a  dog  he  knew,  than  all  the 
historical  pictures  ever  painted.  Horace  Walpole  gives  ex- 
cellent reasons  for  preferring  portraits  to  other  pictures  :  "A 
landscape,  however  excellent  in  its  distribution  of  road  and 
water  and  buildings,  leaves  not  one  trace  in  the  memory; 
historical  painting  is  perpetually  false  in  a  variety  of  ways — 
in  the  costume,  the  grouping,  the  portraits — and  is  nothing 
more  than  fabulous  painting;  but  a  real  portrait  is  truth 
itself,  and  calls  up  so  many  collateral  ideas  as  to  fill  an  intel- 
ligent mind  more  than  any  other  species  of  painting." 

Without  disparaging  other  branches  of  art,  as  the  author 
of  the  above  sentence  has  done,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the 
extreme  popularity  of  the  portrait,  and  photography  has  only 
developed  and  encouraged  a  desire  for  representations  of 
those  we  love,  honor,  or  admire,  by.  giving  us  the  means  of 
producing  portraits,  not  only  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest 
purse,  for  their  cheapness,  but  that  we  can  believe  in  for 
their  truth.  Before  the  birth  of  our  art,  those  who  could  not 
afford  to  employ  a  Reynolds,  a  Gainsborough,  or  a  Lawrence, 
had  to  be  content  with  the  merest  suggestions  of  likeness, 
executed  in  the  most  miserable  style.  Even  when  the  por- 
trait was  painted  by  a  master,  it  required  considerable  faith 
to  enable  a  person  who  did  not  know  the  original  to  believe 
in  the  fidelity  of  the  resemblance.  The  friends  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  often  used  to  express  their  surprise  that  he  had 
courage  to  send  home  portraits  that  bore  so  little  likeness  to 


pictorial  effect  in  photography.  79 

their  originals.  And  from  his  painted  portraits  we  have 
nothing  like  the  faith  in  the  personal  appearance  of  Shake- 
speare we  should  possess  had  we  a  resemblance  of  him  pro- 
duced by  photography.  How  are  we  to  believe  that  the 
portraits  of  Lely  are  faithful  likenesses  of  the  ladies  he 
painted,  when  they  are  so  like  each  other  that  they  appear  to 
be  one  vast  family  of  sisters?  Kneller's  portraits  also  appear 
like  so  many  prints  from  one  plate.  Are  we  to  believe  that 
in  the  time  of  these  two  painters  Nature  forgot  her  variety,  or 
departed  from  her  rule  that  no  two  men  or  women  should 
ever  be  the  same  in  form,  feature,  color,  or  proportion  ?  This 
mannerism,  which  tended  to  destroy  faithfulness  in  portrait- 
ure, injured,  more  or  less,  the  works  of  all  painters,  until 
photography  came  to  teach  them  individuality. 

The  application  of  photography  to  portraiture  has  reformed, 
and  almost  revolutionized,  that  art  throughout  the  world  ; 
yet  ninety-nine  out  of  every  hundred  photographic  portraits 
are  the  most  abominable  things  ever  produced  by  any  art,  and 
the  originals  of  them  may  often  truly  say,  with  the  old  Scotch 
lady  who  saw  her  own  portrait  for  the  first  time,  "  It's  a  hum- 
bling sicht ;  it's  indeed  a  sair  sicht."  This  is  not  the  fault  of 
the  art  itself,  but  of  those  who,  on  the  strength  of  being  able 
to  dirty  a  piece  of  glass  with  chemicals,  are  pleased  to  dub 
themselves  artists.  The  late  depression  in  the  trade  has  done 
good  in  one  respect,  if  it  has  borne  rather  hardly  on  some : 
it  has  killed  off  the  weak  ones — those  who  never  should  have 
left  the  occupations  for  which,  only  they  were  fit,  to  discredit, 
by  their  miserable  productions,  a  noble  profession ;  for  pho- 
tography is  a  noble  profession,  although  it  is  a  mean  trade. 
Photography  has  hitherto  been  a  home  for  the  destitute — 
"A  mart  where  quacks  of  every  kind  resort, 
The  bankrupt's  refuge,  and  the  blockhead's  forte." 

Again,  the  photographer  has  not  often  the  advantage,  en- 


80  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGR  A  I'll  Y. 

joyed  by  the  painter,  of  making  the  acquaintance  of  his  sitter 
before  he  takes  the  portrait.  He  often  sees  him  for  the  first 
time  as  he  enters  his  studio,  and  has  done  with  him  in  a  short 
quarter  of  an  hour.  It  requires  great  perception  of  character 
and  great  fertility  of  resource  to  enable  him  to  determine  at 
once,  and  at  a  glance,  what  is  best  to  be  done,  what  expres- 
sion he  should  endeavor  to  call  up,  and  what  position  would 
best  suit  his  sitter.  Great  painters  usually  commence  opera- 
tions by  dining  with  their  subject,  the  value  of  which  is  shown 
in  the  following  anecdote  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  related  by 
Leslie. 

A  matchless  picture  of  Miss  Bowles,  a  beautiful,  laughing 
child,  caressing  a  dog,  was  sold  a  few  years  ago  at  auction, 
and  cheaply,  at  a  thousand  guineas.  The  father  and  mother 
of  the  little  girl  intended  that  she  should  sit  to  Romney,  who, 
at  one  time,  more  than  divided  the  town  with  Reynolds.  Sir 
George  Beaumont,  however,  advised  them  to  employ  Sir 
Joshua.  "But  his  pictures  fade,"  said  the  father.  "No 
matter,"  replied  Sir  George  ;  "  take  the  chance.  Even  a  faded 
picture,  by  Reynolds,  will  be  the  finest  thing  you  can  have. 
Ask  him  to  dine  with  you,  and  let  him  become  acquainted 
with  her. ' '  The  advice  was  taken  ;  the  little  lady  was  placed 
beside  the  great  painter  at  the  table,  where  he  amused  her  so 
much  with  tricks  and  stories  that  she  thought  him  the  most 
charming  man  in  the  world,  and  the  next  day  was  delighted 
to  be  taken  to  his  house,  where  she  sat  down  with  a  face  full 
of  glee,  the  expression  of  which  he  caught  at  once,  and  never 
lost ;  and  the  affair  turned  out  every  way  happily,  for  the  pic- 
ture did  not  fade — a  phenomenon  occasionally  met  with  even 
in  photography — and  has,  till  now,  escaped  alike  the  inflic- 
tions of  time  and  of  the  ignorant  among  cleaners. 

There  are  two  morals  to  this  little  anecdote :  the  one  is, 
that  if  all  proper  means  are  taken  to  secure  a  good  portrait, 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  81 

g/ass-ip\a.te  cleaning  is  not  the  first  operation.  The  prelimi- 
nary proceeding  is  to  dine  with  your  sitter ;  the  disadvantage 
being  that  the  photographer's  appetite  should  equal  the  ex- 
tent of  his  business,  which  is  not  always  possible,  even  in  the 
present  slack  times.  The  second  moral  is,  that  the  fading  of 
pictures  did  not  originate  with  photography.  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds'  pictures  were  known  to  fade  even  in  his  lifetime  ; 
which  means,  that  it  is  possible  for  paintings  in  oil  to  de- 
teriorate quite  as  quickly  as  photographs.  It  is  not  much 
consolation  to  the  kettle  to  know  that  the  pot  is  also  black  ; 
but  it  is  comforting  to  know,  as  we  have  known  for  the  last 
year  or  two,  that  there  is  no  more  necessity  for  photographs 
to  fade  than  there  is  for  paintings. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PORTRAITURE.  "THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SITTER." 

As  I  am  dealing  with  principles,  I  shall  not,  in  these  chap- 
ters on  portraiture,  give  any  illustration  of  poses,  which  could 
be  of  very  limited  application,  and  would  only  induce  in  the 
student  a  habit  of  servile  imitation,  very  detrimental  to  origi- 
nality, and  unworthy  of  him  who  would  call  himself  an  artist. 
An  inferior  photographer  may  find  a  few  illustrations  of  dif- 
ferent poses  of  some  use  to  him,  inasmuch  as  they  may  assist 
him  in  varying  his  one  pose ;  instead  of  the  one  pose  beyond 
which  his  feeble  imagination  will  not  allow  him  to  venture, 
they  may  give  him  the  use  of  three  or  four ;  but  if  he  will  take 
the  trouble,  or  has  sufficient  ability  to  master  principles,  he 
will  find  himself  possessed  of  a  continual  fund  of  ideas  ready 
for  use,  as  is  necessary  in  successful  portraiture,  at  a  moment's 

6 

I  


82 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


notice.  If  he  have  not  the  ability  and  patience  to  master  the 
few  principles  on  which  his  art  is  based,  I  hope  he  will  excuse 
me  if  I  hint  that  he  had  better  try  some  other  means  of  being 
of  use  to  his  fellow-creatures ;  for  he  would  be  only  doing 
mischief  to  photography  by  continuing  in  the  profession. 

Besides  being  of  very  little  use,  there  is  also  actual  harm  in 
a  ''set"  of  poses,  the  structure  of  which  is  not  understood, 
as  will  be  seen  if  a  sitter  is  allowed  to  select  the  position  in 
which  he  will  be  taken  —  a  pose,  exactly  suited  as  it  might 
have  been  to  the  person  represented,  but,  probably,  no  more 
proper  for  him  than  would  be  the  costume  and  attitude  of  a 
mediaeval  warrior  to  a  modern  merchant,  or  than  the  simple 
elegance  of  a  Greek  statue  to  a  sea-captain. 

Sitters  often  want  to  be  made  to  look  like  other  people,  or, 
rather,  they  think  that  if  they  sit  in  the  same  position,  and 
attempt  the  same  expression,  however  unsuitable,  they  will 
look  as  well  as  some  examples  they  have  seen.  It  constantly 
occurs  that  persons  will  come  into  the  reception-room,  and, 
selecting  a  portrait  of  another,  totally  unlike  in  age,  style,  and 
appearance,  will  say:  "There,  take  me  like  that."  Peter 
Cunningham  gives  an  anecdote  that  may,  possibly,  be  out  of 
place  here,  but  is  too  good  to  omit.  "When  Bernard  Lens 
was  drawing  a  lady's  picture  in  the  dress  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  the  fastidious  sitter  observed :  '  But,  Mr.  Lens,  you 
have  not  made  me  like  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  !  '  '  No,  madam,' 
was  the  reply ;  '  if  God  Almighty  had  made  your  ladyship  like 
her,  I  would.'  "  The  same  may  be  said  on  behalf  of  the 
lenses  of  the  present  day. 

Other  sitters  endeavor  to  improve  their  faces  by  all  manner 
of  contortions — stare  with  their  eyes  to  make  them  larger,  and 
screw  up  their  mouths  to  make  them  smaller.  Opie  was  once 
troubled  with  such  a  sitter,  and  he  quickly  said  to  him  (so 
Haydon  tells  us)  :  "Sir,  if  you  want  your  mouth  left  out,  I 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPH  a  .  83 

will  do  it  with  pleasure."  Instead  of  blunt  wit  of  this  kind, 
the  photographer  will  find  it  answer  better,  and  will  involve 
less  trouble,  to  make  the  sitter  forget  his  mouth  altogether. 
This  cannot  be  done  if  the  sitter  is  constantly  reminded  of 
particular  features.  Many  photographers  keep  a  cheval-glass 
in  their  studios,  to  enable  sitters  to  look  at  themselves  while 
the  exposure  is  proceeding.  There  are  rare  cases  where  the 
practice  may  be  beneficial,  but  on  the  majority  of  subjects  it 
has  a  very  bad  effect.  I  have  tried  it  in  my  own  practice,  and 
found  it  was  a  great  temptation  to  the  sitter  to  make  the  most 
ridiculous  contortions  of  the  face,  in  the  hope  of  calling  up  a 
satisfactory  expression.  King  Lear's  wise  fool  was,  perhaps, 
not  far  wrong  when  he  said,  "  there  was  never  yet  fair  woman 
but  she  made  mouths  in  a  glass."  The  effect  of  "  sitting" 
on  the  "  sitter"  has  often  been  noticed,  perhaps  never  more 
quaintly  and  forcibly  than  by  Webster,  the  author  of  the 
Duchess  of  Malfi,  who  makes  a  character  in  one  of  his  plays 
say  : 

"With  what  a  compelled  face  a  woman  sits 
While  she  is  drawing !    I  have  noted  divers 
Either  to  feign  smiles,  or  suck  in  their  lips 
To  have  a  little  mouth ;  ruffle  the  cheeks 
To  have  the  dimples  seen ;  and  so  disorder 
The  face  with  affectation,  at  next  sitting 
It  has  not  been  the  same.    I  have  known  others 
Have  lost  the  entire  fashion  of  their  face 
In  half  an  hour's  sitting." 

A  good  deal  depends  on  the  temper  of  the  sitter  at  the  time 
of  sitting.  If  he  come  in  a  great  hurry,  and  feel  bored  by  the 
operation,  good  results  cannot  be  expected.  Appointments 
should  be  made  that  sitters  should  not  be  kept  waiting. 
This  is  not  so  difficult  to  manage  as  may  appear.  Be  punctual, 
and  exact  punctuality.  Do  not  accept  pictures  to  do  in  half 
an  hour  that  should  have  more  than  double  that  time  allotted 


84  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

to  them.    It  is  impossible  to  make  a  hungry  man  look  happy. 
It  may  be  said  of  a  man  whom  the  photographer  has  kept  away 
from  his  dinner,  as  Menenius  Agrippa  said  of  Coriolanus : 
"He  was  not  taken  well ;  he  had  not  dined ; 

The  veins  unfilled,  our  blood  is  cold,  and  then 

We  pout  upon  the  morning,  are  unapt." 

It  almost  constantly  happens  that  the  photographer  sees  his 
sitter  for  the  first  time  as  he  enters  the  studio.  Thus  he  has 
no  opportunity  of  studying  the  characteristic  attitudes  or  ex- 
pression, or  the  best  general  arrangement  or  effect.  This 
difficulty  is  almost  insurmountable,  but  can  be  most  nearly 
overcome  by  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  rules  of  art, 
which  will  enable  the  artist  to  think  quickly,  and  make  all  his 
arrangements  without  hesitation,  thus  allowing  him  more  time 
to  study  character.  The  figure  should  not  be  posed  until 
everything  is  ready,  and  then  the  final  arrangements  should 
not  take  a  minute.  This  can  only  be  done  when  the  operator 
quite  knows  his  business,  and  has  thoroughly  made  up  his  mind 
what  he  is  going  to  do.  He  should  be  able  to  see  the  finished 
result  in  his  mind's  eye  from  the  beginning.  There  is  nothing 
so  irritating  to  the  sitter  as  being  kept  waiting  after  being 
posed ;  he  begins  to  feel  he  is  in  a  ridiculous  position,  when 
it  should  be  the  object  of  the  photographer  to  prevent  him 
thinking  that  he  is  in  a  position  at  all.  A  well-posed  figure 
may  be  easily  upset  by  a  bungling  use  of  the  head-rest.  Much 
depends  on  the  judicious  employment  of  the  head-rest  (let  us 
lay  it  down  as  an  axiom  that  this  instrument  is  indispensable, 
even  for  short  exposures,  say,  of  five  or  six  seconds).  The 
rest  should  be  understood,  in  ordinary  cases,  to  be  a  delicate 
support,  not  a  rigid  fixture  against  which  the  figure  is  to  lean. 
There  is  another  rule  that  photographers  should  regard  as 
axiomatic  —  the  rest  should  be  moved  to  the  head,  not  the  head 
to  the  rest :  first  the  pose,  then  the  rest  \  not  first  the  rest,  and 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  85 

then  the  pose.  In  my  own  practice,  I  prefer  a  very  light, 
simple  rest  of  the  old  American  pattern,  without  any  compli- 
cations ;  one  so  light  that  I  can  carry  it  about  after  the  sitter 
without  trouble. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  a  good  photographic  por- 
trait, as  in  a  painted  one,  it  is  expected  will  be  produced — 

"  Not  the  form  alone 
And  semblance,  but,  however  faintly  shown, 
The  mind's  impression,  too,  on  every  face." 

Here  the  educated  photographer  has  a  great  advantage  over 
those  who  are  less  fortunate.  He  will  endeavor  to  so  enter- 
tain his  sitter  that  he  will  feel  more  at  ease  than  if  he  were 
taken  into  a  strange  room,  fixed  incontinently  in  a  chair,  and 
photographed.  It  will  be  found  that  not  only  the  expression 
will  be  improved,  but  that  pictorial  effect,  as  regards  arrange- 
ment of  lines,  will  also  be  much  improved  by  the  increased 
ease  the  sitter  feels  as  he  becomes  more  familiar  with  the  studio 
and  the  student.  I  have  known  many  persons  who,  after  months 
of  persuasion,  have  consented  to  have  their  portraits  taken, 
and  who  came  in  fear  and  trembling,  but  who,  by  judicious 
treatment,  have  eventually  so  positively  enjoyed  the  operation, 
that  it  has  become  almost  a  passion. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  this  objection  to  "sit"  has 
been  engendered  by  the  brusque  manners,  and  rough,  un- 
courteous,  and  conceited  behavior  of  photographers  them- 
selves. A  certain  amount  of  self-confidence,  if  there  is  any 
basis  for  it,  reacts  favorably  on  the  sitter;  but  it  should  not 
be  carried  too  far,  or  some  sensitive  people  may  consider  it 
amounted  to  rudeness. 

A  good  deal  depends  on  such  an  apparent  trifle  as  the  man- 
ner of  taking  off  the  cap  of  the  lens  and  exposing  the  plate ; 
and  there  is  as  much  difference  in  the  method  of  performing 
this  simple  operation  as '  there  is  in  difference  of  opinion 


86  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

amongst  photographers  on  any  other  circumstance  connected 
with  their  art.  One  will  shout:  "The  exposure's  agoing  to 
begin  !"  in  such  an  angry  and  threatening  tone,  that  you  feel 
inclined  to  call  the  police;  while  another  will  so  smother  you 
with  the  suavity  of  his  manner,  that  you  feel  ashamed  of 
troubling  him.  The  first  rarely  succeeds  in  anything  but  dis- 
gusting his  customers ;  the  other  oppresses  them  by  over-polite- 
ness. It  is  evident  that  some  course  between  these  two  is  the 
correct  one.  The  photographer  must  have  a  strong  will  to 
enable  him  to  carry  out  his  idea  as  to  arrangement,  and  suf- 
ficient subtlety  to  do  so,  and  at  the  same  time  please  his  sub- 
ject.   His  motto  must  be,  suaviter  in  modo,  fortiter  in  re. 

It  may  be  asked:  What  has  all  this  to  do  with  "Pictorial 
Effect  in  Photography?"  Simply  this:  it  is  the  province  of 
the  artist  to  secure  the  most  characteristic,  the  most  truthful, 
and  the  most  pleasing  aspect  of  every  subject ;  and  that,  with- 
out regard  to  the  matters  to  which  I  have  been  directing  atten- 
tion, character,  truth,  and  beauty  will  alike  be  wanting  in  pho- 
tographic portraits,  whether  the  originals  be  commonplace  or 
distinguished. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

PORTRAITURE. — "THE  POSE." 

Portraiture  may  consist  in  the  representation  of  a  single 
figure  or  a  group  of  persons.  We  will  first  consider  the  com- 
position of  a  portrait  picture  in  which  one  person  only  is  rep- 
resented. , 

Long  experience  will  show  that  the  two  sides  of  every  face 
differ.  This  is  very  evident  in  many  faces,  and  in  all,  how- 
ever regular  the  eyes  may  seem,  or  however  straight  the  nose 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY .  87 

may  appear,  close  observation  will  discover  that  one  side  is 
better  than  the  other.  It  is  this  side  that  should  be  taken. 
Even  in  a  full,  or  nearly  full,  face  this  variation  should  always 
be  noticed  and  taken  advantage  of.  These  deviations  from 
exact  correspondence  of  the  sides  of  the  face  have  not  been 
considered  blemishes  by  great  painters,  who  invariably  noticed 
and  recorded  them.  It  is  notably  so  in  the  portraits  by  Rey- 
nolds. It  may  be  seen  in  the  print  from  the  Ugolino,  where 
it  increases  the  look  of  fixed  despair,  and  in  the  front  face  of 
Garrick,  in  which  the  difference  of  the  eyes  strikingly  assists 
the  archness  of  the  expression. 

In  photographic  portraiture  the  face  should,  as  a  general 
rule,  be  turned  away  from  the  light.  If  the  face  is  turned  to 
the  light,  however  delicate  the  half-tones  may  be,  the  line  of 
the  nose  will  be  partly  lost  in  equal  light  on  the  cheek  behind 
it.  Painters  occasionally  represent  faces  in  this  position  as 
regards  the  light,  but  then  they  have  the  advantage  of  color 
to  produce  relief.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule — that  the 
face  should  be  turned  from  the  light — is  in  the  case  of  a  pro- 
file, or  the  profile  showing  a  glimpse  of  the  off  eye  when  the 
nose  comes  clear  against  the  background.  For  these  reasons 
— that  is,  because  it  is  necessary  to  choose  which  side  of  the 
face  is  to  be  represented,  and  because  the  face  must  be  turned 
from  the  light — it  is  well  to  have  a  studio  so  constructed  that 
the  light  can  be  obtained  from  the  right  or  the  left  j  in  a 
ridge-roof  studio  with  one  side  glass  and  the  other  opaque, 
both  ends  should  be  available  for  use.  It  is  also  well  to  have 
it  sufficiently  wide  to  enable  the  operator  to  work  diagonally, 
and  thus  get  a  modification  of  the  shadows  without  the  use  of 
reflectors. 

Having  decided  the  side  to  be  taken,  which  also  determines 
the  general  direction  of  the  light,  the  next  consideration  is 
that  of  attitude.    As  regards  the  position  of  the  head,  Burnet 


88  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

observes:  "Every  one  who  takes  the  trouble  to  reflect  must 
perceive  that  all  faces  contain  two  points  of  view,  where  the 
character  is  more  or  less  developed  —  a  profile,  and  what  is 
termed  a  front  view ;  and  that  the  seat  of  a  strong  likeness 
lies  sometimes  in  one  greater  than  in  the  other.  They  must 
also  perceive  that  what  is  called  a  three-quarter  view  of  the 
head  gives  the  artist  an  opportunity  of  representing  both ;  in- 
dependent of  which  advantage  it  has  a  greater  variety  in  the 
forms,  and  gives  an  opportunity  for  introducing  a  greater 
breadth  of  light  and  shade,  and  also  of  showing  the  ear,  which 
is  often  a  beautiful  feature."  A  full  face  is  seldom  so  agree- 
able in  photography  as  one  slightly  turned  away. 

In  selecting  and  arranging  an  attitude,  the  application  of 
the  general  principles  I  have  dwelt  on  in  previous  chapters 
will  be  of  more  value  than  any  recipe  that  could  be  given  ;  in 
fact,  as  I  have  said  before,  any  specific  directions  or  plans  of 
portraits — thus  will  we  arrange  a  man,  thus  will  we  arrange  a 
woman,  or  thus  will  we  arrange  a  child — would  interfere  with 
individual  characteristics,  and  do  more  harm  than  good.  But 
]    a  few  general  remarks  may  be  useful. 

A  single  figure  should  be  complete  in  itself;  it  should  not 
appear  as  though  it  had  been  cut  out  of  a  group,  and  it  should 
be  incapable  of  having  another  figure  added  to  it  without  in- 
jury. The  head  being  the  chief  object,  every  line  should  be 
composed  in  relation  to  it ;  and  the  student  will  find  the  rules 
of  pyramidal  composition  invaluable  to  him  here.  He  must 
consider  contrast  of  lines  and  balance,  variety,  repose,  and, 
above  all,  unity  and  simplicity.  All  the  rules  for  the  compo- 
sition of  a  group — such  as  the  "Blind  Fiddler" — hold  good 
for  the  single  figure,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  head  is  the 
principal  object,  to  which  everything  is  to  be  subordinate, 
which  is  to  receive  the  sharpest  focus,  the  highest  light,  and 
the  chief  attention,  after  which  the  hands  will  claim  considera- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN   PHOTOGRAPHY.  89 

tion.  The  hands  will  be  found  very  useful  in  repeating,  in  a 
minor  and  subordinate  degree,  the  mass  of  light  presented  by 
the  face.  They  have  the  advantage,  in  one  respect,  of  not 
being  of  so  much  importance  as  the  face ;  they  may  be  dis- 
played (always  without  affectation)  if  they  are  fine  in  form, 
or  they  may  be  hidden,  if  necessary.  Just  as,  in  the  "  Blind 
Fiddler,"  no  head  is  exactly  under  another,  so  ought  not  the 
hand  to  be  exactly  under  the  head.  A  great  deal  of  character 
can  be  given  to  the  hand,  if  properly  treated.  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  writing  to  Wilkie  of  a  picture  he  had  seen  at  Windsor, 
says:  "  There  was  a  picture  of  the  Pope,  which  struck  me  very 
much.  I  fancied,  if  I  had  seen  only  the  hand,  I  could  have 
guessed  it  not  only  to  be  the  hand  of  a  gentleman  and  a  per- 
son of  high  rank,  but  of  a  man  who  had  never  been  employed 
in  war,  or  in  the  sports  by  which  the  better  classes  generally 
harden  and  roughen  their  hands  in  youth.  It  was  and  could 
be  only  the  hand  of  an  old  priest,  which  had  no  ruder  em- 
ployment than  bestowing  benedictions."  Sir  Charles  Bell,  in 
his  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  Hand,  says:  "  We  must  not 
omit  to  speak  of  the  hand  as  an  instrument  of  expression. 
Formal  dissertations  have  been  written  on  this ;  but  were 
we  constrained  to  such  authorities,  we  might  take  the  great 
painters  in  evidence,  since  by  the  position  of  the  hands,  in 
conformity  with  the  figure,  they  have  expressed  every  senti- 
ment. Who,  for  example,  can  deny  the  eloquence  of  the 
hands  in  the  '  Magdalen '  of  Guido ;  their  expression  in  the 
cartoons  of  Raphael;  or  in  the  'Last  Supper,'  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci?  We  see  there  expressed  all  that  Quintilian  says 
the  head  is  capable  of  expressing  —  1  For  other  parts  of  the 
body/  says  he,  'assist  the  speaker;  but  these,  I  may  say, 
speak  themselves.  By  them  we  ask,  we  promise,  we  in- 
voke, we  dismiss,  we  threaten,  we  entreat,  we  deprecate,  we 
express  fear,  joy,  grief,  our  doubts,  our  assent,  our  peni- 


90  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

tence ;  we  show  moderation,  profusion ;  we  mark  number 
and  time.'  " 

The  action  of  the  figure  should  be  that  which  is  most  com- 
mon to  the  individual  —  such  a  position  as  shows  it  to  the 
best  advantage.  No  violent  action  should  be  allowed ;  no 
appearance  of  strain.  Some  photographers  seem  to  think 
that  grace  consists  of  twists,  and  make  spirals  of  their  figures, 
especially  ladies,  by  causing  them  to  turn  their  heads  over 
their  shoulders,  and  try  to  look  down  their  backs  out  of  the 
corners  of  their  eyes.  The  absurdity  and  affectation  of  this 
position  are  caused  by  exaggeration.  A  position  approaching 
to  it,  but  without  the  strain,  is  exceedingly  graceful  if  the  fig- 
ure should  be  sufficiently  easy  and  pliant  to  allow  of  this 
pose.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  the  student 
that  the  possibilities  of  the  figure  must  be  considered  before 
the  attitude  is  chosen ;  every  figure  will  not  allow  of  every 
attitude,  any  more  than  a  decrepit  old  man  of  eighty  or 
ninety  could  perform  the  feats  of  a  skilful  acrobat.  Some 
figures  are  graceful  in  one  position,  while  they  would  be 
awkward  in  another,  probably  still  more  graceful  in  a  figure 
it  suited.  However  graceful  a  figure  may  appear  which  has 
cost  some  effort  in  the  sitter  to  attain,  it  does  not  compensate 
for  the  unaffected  air  and  repose  derived  from  the  head  and 
body  placed  in  one  direction,  as  we  see  in  the  grand  por- 
traits of  old  men  by  Titian,  Vandyke,  and  Raphael. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  this  last  remark,  that  I  advo- 
cate that  every  figure  should  be  presented  with  the  head  and 
body  exactly  in  one  direction,  although  it  is  very  suitable  for 
some  persons ;  but  it  will  be  found  that  a  very  slight  differ- 
ence of  direction  between  the  head  and  figure  —  as  in  the 
illustration  —  will  be  sufficient  to  give  animation  without  dis- 
turbing repose. 

The  student  will  do  well  to  observe  attitudes  assumed  in 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  91 


every-day  life,  and  adapt  them  to  his  art.  When  he  sees  a 
beautiful  attitude,  let  him  speculate  upon  the  cause  of  its 


Fig.  18. 


being  beautiful,  and  he  will  find  that  it  depends  for  its  effect 
on  its  consistency  with  the  rules  of  composition ;  and,  although 
these  rules  will  not  supply  him  with  imagination  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  perpetually  invent  new  arrangements,  he  will 
find  they  aid  him  very  materially  in  giving  expression  to  his 
inventions,  and  will  prevent  him  being  extravagant  or  exag- 
gerated in  his  arrangements  of  the  form.  He  should  also  store 
his  mind  with  incidents  suitable  to  his  sitters,  and  he  may  then, 
perhaps,  be  able  to  give  less  occupation  to  the  eternal  book 
we  see  in  the  hands  of  photographees  almost  as  often  as  a  roll 
of  paper  is  represented  in  the  hands  of  statues  of  statesmen. 


92  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Remarks  on  the  treatment  of  the  single  figure  should  also 
contain  something  on  the  subject  of  vignettes,  a  style  of  por- 
trait usually  confined  to  the  head  and  shoulders,  a  kind  of  pic- 
ture so  simple  as  apparently  to  require  very  little  considera- 
tion ;  but  I  have  seen  them  done  so  badly,  that  a  few  words  may 
be  of  service. 

A  vignette  head,  when  nothing  more  than  the  head  and 
shoulders  is  seen,  should  never  convey  the  impression  that  the 
sitter  was  lounging  in  a  chair  or  leaning  on  a  table ;  the 
reason  being,  that  as  the  table  or  chair  is  not  visible,  the  fig- 
ure would  appear  out  of  shape  and  deformed.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  shoulders  should  appear  level,  as  though  the  subject 
was  standing.  A  little  variation  between  the  direction  of  the 
head  and  shoulders  will  always  give  variety  and  animation. 
The  lighting  should  be  more  delicate  than  that  suitable  for 
other  portraits,  and  the  background  should  always  be  light. 
If  the  white  margin  to  the  vignette  be  very  slightly  tinted  in 
the  light  after  printing,  the  delicate  effect  will  be  increased ; 
but,  when  this  is  attempted,  it  is  usually  overdone,  and  then 
the  effect  becomes  heavy,  and  worse  than  if  the  white  paper 
had  been  left  pure. 

In  conclusion,  make  it  a  constant  practice,  before  removing 
the  cap  from  the  lens,  to  first  give  a  rapid  glance  at  the  sitter, 
to  see  whether  the  outline  of  the  figure  composes  well,  that 
the  light  and  shade  are  massive  and  round,  and  that  there 
appears  some  indication  of  the  expression  you  desire  on  the 
face  of  the  sitter.  If  there  is  a  lack  of  either  of  these  quali- 
ties, do  not  waste  your  plate  until  you  have  got  them  before 
your  lens. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  93 

CHAPTER  XX. 

PORTRAITURE.  "  GROUPS  "  "  PROPORTION.." 

The  composition  of  a  portrait  group  depends  very  much 
upon  the  character  of  its  constituents.  Two  or  three  children, 
if  they  are  not  excessively  stupid  samples,  are  very  easy  to 
group  together,  and,  when  well  done,  make  the  most  agreeable 
and  natural  pictures ;  while  two  adults,  especially  of  the  male 
kind,  although  easier  to  photograph,  seldom  make  an  effective 
composition. 

The  great  art  in  the  composition  of  a  group  is  in  so  arrang- 
ing the  figures  that  they  shall  have  some  relation  to  each  other, 
as  well  as  the  ordinary  elements  of  pictorial  construction. 
There  should  be  some  bond  of  union  between  those  who  com- 
pose the  group ;  some  incident  should  be  represented  in  which 
they  are  mutually  interested ;  or  something  must  be  imagined 
out  of  the  picture  to  attract  the  attention  of  both  if  only  two 
are  represented,  or  of  many  of  them  if  there  is  a  number. 
The  figures  should  be  massed  together,  and  not  scattered  over 
the  picture  so  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  examine  each  portrait 
in  detail,  until  it  has  been  seen,  and  the  effect  agreeably  felt, 
as  a  whole.  Nothing  has  a  more  disagreeable  effect  than  two 
figures  in  one  picture  which  may  be  cut  in  two  without  much 
injury  to  either  half — two  figures,  like  Enid  and  Geraint  in 
the  wild  land, — 

"  Apart  by  all  the  chamber's  width,  and  mute 
As  creatures  voiceless,  thro'  the  fault  of  birth, 
Or  two  wild  men  supporters  of  a  shield, 
Painted,  who  stare  at  open  space,  nor  glance 
The  one  at  other,  parted  by  the  shield." 


94  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  representing  two  persons  in  conver- 
sation, that  they  should  be  looking  at  each  other;  the  effect 
of  listening  can  be  rendered  without  putting  them  to  that 
trying  ordeal.  It  constantly  happens  that  in  conversations 
even  on  the ^most  important  subjects,  the  talker  and  the  listener 
do  not  look  at  each  other,  although,  even  if  the  sounds  were 
not  heard,  it  would  be  obvious  from  their  appearance  that  the 
persons  were  in  conversation.  One  point  which  should  com- 
mand the  attention  of  the  student  is,  that  there  should  be 
variety  in  the  heads,  not  only  as  regards  profile,  three-quarter, 
or  full  face,  but  in  their  position  on  the  paper.  Thus,  it  is 
difficult  (although  possible)  to  obtain  much  pictorial  effect 
out  of  two  figures  of  exactly  the  same  height  standing  to- 
gether ;  in  such  a  case  variety  must  be  got  in  the  lines  of  the 
different  figures  by  varying  the  direction  of  the  bodies,  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  arms  and  hands,  and  by  the  disposition 
of  the  accessories  and  background. 

It  is  by  the  amount  of  perfection  with  which  he  succeeds 
with  groups  that  the  photographer  will  discover  the  power  that 
is  within  him.  If,  after  repeated  attempts,  he  fail,  or  do  not 
succeed  to  his  satisfaction,  he  will  do  well  to  confine  himself 
as  much  as  possible  to  vignette  or  medallion  heads, — a  style 
demanding  seme  taste  and  care,  but  taxing  the  artistic  powers 
much  less  than  more  elaborate  compositions.  Many  photog- 
raphers have  so  studied  the  best  methods  of  treating  the  head, 
and  the  head  alone,  that  they  have  succeeded  to  admiration, 
and  attained  high  reputation  by  this  class  of  work.  They 
have  preferred  to  succeed  by  doing  a  simple  style  well,  rather 
than  a  more  complex  style  imperfectly. 

Some  artists  prefer  to  have  to  make  a  group  of  three  persons 
rather  than  two.  I  confess  that  the  more  figures  I  have  to 
deal  with  in  portrait  photography,  the  more  difficult  I  find  my 
task.    More  than  three  or  four  figures  should  never  be  at- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  95 

tempted  in  one  negative,  if  it  is  necessary  that  every  person 
should  be  a  good  portrait.  I  leave  out  of  consideration,  here, 
large  out-door  groups  taken  on  the  hit-or-miss  principle.  It 
is  impossible  to  get  more  into  an  upright  carte-de-visite  with- 
out crowding.  I  have  seen  a  dozen  or  more  figures  in  a  card 
portrait;  but  we  are  speaking  of  composition  here,  not  of 
figures  thrown  together  in  a  heap,  with  a  head  appearing  here 
and  there  just  as  it  gets  the  opportunity.  If  more  than  four 
figures  must  be  included  in  the  small  dimensions  of  a  carte-de- 
visite,  it  would  be  much  better  to  turn  the  camera  on  its  side, 
and  make  a  horizontal  picture  of  it.  I  have  seen  some  most 
delightful  little  gems  of  pictures  of  this  kind  by  Angerer,  in 
which  the  interior  of  a  large  drawing-room  of  people — full 
without  crowding — was  represented.  I  should  much  like  to 
see  pictures  of  this  kind  introduced  into  England,  but  the 
large  size  of  the  studio  required  would,  I  fear,  prevent  all  but 
a  few  attempting  them. 

When  the  picture  is  larger  than  a  carte-de-visite  or  cabinet 
bize,  it  is  always  better  and  much  easier  to  produce  a  group  by 
combination  printing.  Photographers  appear  to  have  been 
afraid  of  the  difficulties  of  this  method;  but  I  am  glad  to  see 
it  is  coming  very  much  more  into  use  as  photographers  obtain 
a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  capabilities  of  their  art. 
To  accomplish  this,  a  sketch  should  be  made  of  the  composi- 
tion, no  matter  how  roughly  done,  so  that  the  artist  knows 
what  he  intended  by  it,  when  he  looks  at  it  a  second  time ; 
or  the  figures  may  be  placed  in  position,  and  a  small  photo- 
graph taken  of  the  arrangement.  They  should  be  so  grouped 
that  the  joining  should  come  in  unimportant  places.  Although 
ic  is  possible  to  make  a  perfect  join,  even  down  the  line  of  a 
delicate  profile,  it  is  better,  if  possible,  to  keep  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  art  out  of  sight.  When  a  sketch  or  a  small  photo- 
graph of  the  complete  arrangement  is  obtained,  the  groups  or 


96  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

single  figures  should  be  photographed  in  detail,  by  preference 
against  a  white  or  very  light  screen,  if  a  background  is  also 
to  be  put  in.  If  the  background  is  to  be  an  interior,  it  will 
be  found  most  convenient  to  take  it  with  the  figures,  the  acces- 
sories being  so  arranged  that  the  lines  of  junction  will  not  be 
seen. 

A  natural  background  may  be  introduced  behind  a  single  fig- 
ure with  great  effect,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  it  may  be  used 
with  advantage  for  pictures  so  small  even  as  a  carte-de-visiie. 

A  great  deal  of  the  effect  of  a  portrait  will  depend  on  the 


Fig.  19.  Fig.  20. 


position  the  figure  occupies  in  the  picture.  A  glance  at  the 
illustrations  will  show  this. 

As  a  general  rule,  if  the  head  be  not  equidistant  from  the 
sides  of  the  picture,  there  should  be  more  space  allowed  before 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


97 


the  face  than  behind,  as  in  Fig.  19.  The  awkward  effect  of 
the  reverse  of  this  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  20. 

A  disregard  of  this  rule  has  spoiled  the  effect  of  many  other- 
wise good  pictures.  In  some  photographs  we  see  the  figure 
walking  almost  out  of  the  picture,  for  the  sake  of  showing  the 
last  coils  of  the  long  caudal  appendages  with  which  ladies 
sweep  the  dust,  thus  sacrificing  the  head  for  the  tail. 

The  apparent  height  of  the  person  represented  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  position  of  the  figure  on  the  plane  of 
the  picture.  The  taller  the  person,  the  nearer  to  the  top  should 
the  head  be  placed,  and,  if  the  figure  be  a  full  length,  less  of 
the  ground  should  be  shown.     A  short  person  should  be 


brought  lower  in  the  picture.  In  Figs.  21  and  22  the  con 
trast  is  shown. 

It  often  happens  that  the  figure  is  made  much  too  big  for 


98  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  picture.  I  have  seen  some  cartes  in  which  the  head  nearly 
touches  the  top  of  the  picture  and  the  feet  the  bottom,  so  that, 
when  they  were  inserted  in  an  album,  some  part  must  be  cov- 
ered, perhaps  a  foot  cut  off,  or  perhaps  half  the  head.  This 
is  done,  I  suppose,  under  a  mistaken  notion  on  the  part  of 
the  photographer  that  he  is  giving  enough  for  the  money — a 
principle  to- which  I  have  no  objection;  but  let  the  " enough" 
be  in  quality  rather  than  in  quantity.  A  carte-de-visite  dis- 
playing proportion,  taste,  and  a  right  feeling  for  art,  is  of 
much  more  value  than  a  life-size  picture,  whether  by  painter 
or  photographer,  that  does  not  possess  these  desirable  qualities. 

There  has  been  a  notion  prevalent  that  all  figures  must  be 
taken  to  scale.  Thus,  if  a  six-foot  figure  be  represented  in  a 
carte-de-visite  as  three  inches  long  (about  the  right  propor- 
tion), a  child  three  feet  high  must  therefore  be  represented  as 
half  that  height,  or  one  inch  and  a  half.  If  it  be  necessary 
to  make  elevations  of,  say,  a  family,  to  send  to  friends  at  a 
distance,  to  compare  with  others  taken  some  time  before,  to 
demonstrate  the  fact  that  the  children  are  growing,  then  this 
method  must  be  followed  ;  but  the  photographer  should  never 
forget  that  it  is  his  business  to  make  pictures,  and  that  a  figure 
one  and  a  half  inches  high  will  not  fill  a  picture  of  the  usual 
card  size  with  anything  like  effect.  I  therefore  advise  that  a 
little  license  should  be  taken  in  this  particular,  and  that  when 
a  child  is  to  be  photographed,  all  consideration  of  how  much 
of  the  picture  would  be  filled  by  a  grown  person,  with  the 
camera  at  a  certain  distance,  be  forgotten,  and  that  nothing 
but  the  child,  the  object  then  before  the  photographer,  should 
engage  his  thoughts. 

The  same  disregard  of  proportion  exists  among  landscape 
photographers;  many  would  prefer  to  sacrifice  effect  rather 
than  cut  away  a  little  of  the  foreground,  and  thus  depart  from 
their  regulation  size. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  99 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

BACKGROUNDS. 

In  portraiture,  the  background,  often  neglected  and  con- 
sidered as  but  of  little  moment,  so  that  it  be  clean  and  smooth, 
should  hold  a  very  important  place  when  the  composition  and 
chiaro-oscuro  of  the  picture  are  considered.  The  backgrounds 
of  his  portraits  were  thought  to  be  of  so  much  consequence  by 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  that  he  frequently  declared  that  what- 
ever preparatory  assistance  he  might  admit  in  his  draperies  or 
other  parts  of  the  figure,  he  always  made  it  a  point  to  keep 
the  arrangement  of  the  scenery,  the  disposition  and  ultimate 
finish  of  the  background,  to  himself.  The  most  carefully 
manipulated  portrait,  exhibiting  the  most  delicate  photogra- 
phy, and  the  most  refined  light  and  shade  and  composition, 
may  be  destroyed,  or  its  beauty  much  impaired,  by  an  ill- 
chosen  background  ;  or  it  may  be  efficiently  aided  and  sup- 
ported by  a  proper  and  suitable  arrangement  of  form  and  light 
and  shade  in  this  important  portion  of  the  picture. 

The  general  practice  with  most  photographers  is  to  employ 
a  perfectly  plain,  even-tinted  background,  or  badly-painted 
representations  of  interiors  or  landscapes  ;  but  those  who  know 
most  about  art  are  convinced  of  the  extreme  value  of  light 
and  shade,  gradation  and  tone,  behind  the  figure,  to  relieve 
some  parts  and  to  hide  others,  to  give  breadth  and  concentrate 
attention  to  the  principal  feature, — the  head. 

In  using  a  plain  background,  without  any  variation  of  light 
and  shade,  the  photographer  throws  away  a  great  advantage. 
Nothinp-  ™nld  be  more  antagonistic  to  breadth,  atmosphere, 


100  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

and  richness — nothing  could  so  surely  secure  a  flat,  inlaid 
effect  to  the  figure — than  a  plain  background.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  a  surface  without  gradation  in  nature.  Take 
the  plain  surface  of  the  wall  of  a  room  as  a  background,  and 
you  will  not  find  it  easy  to  discover  a  sufficient  space  for  a 
background  on  which  a  shadow  modifying  its  even  tint  does 
not  fall.  The  cloudless  sky  is  marvellously  gradated  from 
the  zenith  to  the  horizon  ;  and  so  you  may  go  throughout  all 
nature  till  you  surprise  yourself  with  the  discovery  that  the 
only  plain,  blank  thing  in  this  world  is  a  photographer's 
background,  on  which  the  equal  light  falls  from  a  broad  ex- 
panse of  glass.  Ruskin,  in  his  Elements  of  Drawing,  has  a 
fine  passage  on  gradation  of  color,  which  is  equally  applicable 
to  light  and  shade,  and,  therefore,  to  our  subject.  "When- 
ever you  lay  on  a  mass  of  color,  be  sure  that  however  large  it 
may  be,  or  however  small,  it  shall  be  gradated.  No  color 
exists  in  nature,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  without  grada- 
tion. If  you  do  not  see  this,  it  is  the  fault  of  your  inex- 
perience ;  you  will  see  it  in  due  time,  if  you  practise  enough. 
But  in  general  you  may  see  it  at  once.  In  the  birch  trunk, 
for  instance,  the  rosy-gray  must  be  gradated  by  the  roundness 
of  the  stem  till  it  meets  the  shaded  side ;  similarly,  the 
shaded  side  is  gradated  by  reflected  light.  Accordingly,  you 
must,  in  every  tint  you  lay  on,  make  it  a  little  paler  at  one 
part  than  another,  and  get  an  even  gradation  between  the 
two  depths.  This  is  very  like  laying  down  a  formal  law  or 
receipt  for  you,  but  you  will  find  it  merely  the  assertion  of  a 
natural  fact.  It  is  not,  indeed,  physically  impossible  to  meet 
with  an  ungradated  piece  of  color,  but  it  is  so  supremely  im- 
probable, that  you  had  better  get  into  the  habit  of  asking 
yourself  invariably,  when  you  are  going  to  copy  a  tint,  not 
'  Is  that  gradated  ?  '  but  '  Which  way  is  that  gradated  ?  ' 
and  at  least,  in  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  instances,  you 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  101 

will  be  able  to  answer  decisively  after  a  careful  glance,  though 
the  gradation  may  have  been  so  subtle  that  you  did  not  see  it 
at  first.  And  it  does  not  matter  how  small  the  touch  of  color 
may  be,  though  not  larger  than  the  smallest  pin's  head,  if 
one  part  of  it  is  not  darker  than  the  rest,  it  is  a  bad  touch; 
for  it  is  not  merely  because  the  natural  fact  is  so  that  your 
color  should  be  gradated  ;  the  preciousness  and  pleasantness 
of  the  color  itself  depend  more  on  this  than  on  any  other 
of  its  qualities,  for  gradation  is  to  colors  just  what  curvature 
is  to  lines,  both  being  felt  to  be  beautiful  by  the  pure  instinct 
of  every  human  mind.  .  .  .  What  the  difference  is  in  mere 
beauty  between  a  gradated  and  ungradated  color  may  be  seen 
easily  by  laying  an  even  tint  of  rose-color  on  paper,  and 
putting  a  rose-leaf  beside  it.  The  victorious  beauty  of  the 
rose,  as  compared  with  other  flowers,  depends  wholly  on  the 
delicacy  and  quantity  of  its  color  gradations,  all  other  flowers 
being  either  less  rich  in  gradations,  not  having  so  many  folds 
of  leaf,  or  less  tender,  being  patched  and  veined  instead  of 
flushed."  Further  on  he  says  :  "  You  will  not,  in  Turner's 
largest  oil  pictures,  perhaps  six  or  seven  feet  long  by  four 
or  five  high,  find  one  spot  of  color  as  large  as  a  grain  of 
wheat  ungradated;  and  you  will  find  in  practice  that  bril- 
liancy of  hue  and  vigor  of  light,  and  even  the  aspect  of  trans- 
parency in  shade,  are  essentially  dependent  on  this  character 
alone:  hardness,  coldness,  and  opacity  resulting  far  more 
from  equality  of  color  than  from  nature  of  color." 

It  is  thus  with  photographs  and  pictures  in  monochrome ; 
an  isolated  mass  of  dark  is  not  rich,  neither  is  a  separated 
space  of  light  brilliant ;  it  is  opposition  and  gradation  of  the 
one  with  the  other  that  produce  richness  and  brilliancy. 
Therefore  a  plain  background  is  the  most  destructive  to  pic- 
torial effect  that  could  be  placed  behind  a  figure.  A  glance 
at  the  illustrations  to  the  preceding  chapter  will  show  that 


102  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

one  of  the  effects  of  a  plain  background  is  to  represent  the 
figure  as  cut  out  and  stuck  down  on  a  piece  of  plain  gray 
paper. 

Haydon  called  the  background  the  most  hazardous  part  of 
the  picture,  and  a  subject  that  required  as  much  consideration 
as  the  figures,  because,  be  the  figures  ever  so  good,  their  effect 
may  be  seriously  injured  by  ineffective  support.  There  is  a 
story  told  of  Rubens  by  which  it  will  be  seen  that  he  also  con- 
sidered that,  to  the  effect  of  the  picture,  the  background  is  of 
the  greatest  importance. 

A  young  painter,  being  anxious  to  enter  Rubens'  studio  as 
a  pupil,  induced  an  influential  friend  to  recommend  him,  who 
did  so  by  informing  the  great  painter  that  he  was  already 
somewhat  advanced  in  art,  and  would  be  of  immediate 
assistance  to  him  in  his  backgrounds.  The  great  painter, 
smiling  at  his  friend's  simplicity,  said,  that  if  the  youth  was 
capable  of  painting  his  backgrounds,  he  stood  in  no  need  of 
further  instructions;  that  the  regulation  and  management  of 
them  required  the  most  comprehensive  knowledge  of  art. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  definite  instructions  for  the 
management  of  the  background,  but  the  treatment  of  differ- 
ent artists  may  be  alluded  to.  The  system  adopted  in  most 
of  his  pictures  by  Adam-Salomon,  following  the  plan  of  many 
of  the  most  famous  portrait  painters,  appears  to  be  that  the 
lightest  side  of  the  figure  shall  be  relieved  by  dark,  and  the 
darkest  side  by  light.  The  upper  corner  of  the  picture,  on  the 
side  from  which  the  light  comes,  is  intensely  dark,  the  shadow 
being  gradated  diagonally  across  the  picture  into  middle  tint 
behind  the  head;  this  middle  tint  is  again  more  abruptly 
opposed  and  carried  away  into  dark  by  the  accessories,  or  is 
again  allowed  to  die  away  into  shade.  He  also  appears  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  a  vertical  line  in  the  background,  to 
give  stability  to  the  composition,  usually  obtaining  it  by  the 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  103 

straight  lines  of  a  fluted  column  (an  objectionable  accessory, 
in  my  opinion,  for  reasons  which  I  shall  give  in  the  next 
chapter).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  pictures  of  M. 
Adam-Salomon  are  the  most  effective  portraits,  containing  all 
valuable  qualities,  that  have  appeared  in  photography,  and 
afford  a  most  valuable  lesson  to  photographers. 

The  backgrounds  to  the  portraits  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
are  always  worthy  of  study.  Some  of  his  finest  and  richest 
pictures  have  a  dark  ground,  on  which  the  head  shines  like  a 
jewel ;  many  are  relieved  in  the  manner  employed  by  Adam- 
Salomon  ;  and  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  nearly  every  picture 
in  which  the  background  is  gradated,  he  has  introduced  one 
or  two  vertical  lines  to  aid  the  composition,  generally  a  dark 
line  and  a  light  one,  a  mere  suggestion  of  a  pilaster.  His 
landscape  backgrounds  are  always  singularly  appropriate  and 
natural  j  although  the  horizon  in  many  instances  is  lower  than 
we  should  feel  justified  in  representing  it  in  such  a  truthful  art 
as  photography.  Although  his  practice  was  to  relieve  the 
dark  side  of  the  figure  with  light,  and  the  light  with  dark, 
in  one  of  his  discourses  he  advocates  an  opposite  treatment, 
one  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  work  of  Correggio  and  other 
painters  of  his  school.  In  commenting  on  the  precept  of  Leon- 
ardo da  Vinci,  that  the  shadowed  side  of  the  figure  should  be  re- 
lieved by  light,  Sir  Joshua  says :  "  If  Leonardo  had  lived  to 
see  the  superior  splendor  of  effect  which  has  been  since  pro- 
duced by  the  exactly  contrary  conduct — by  joining  light  to  light 
and  shadow  to  shadow — though  without  doubt  he  would  have 
admired  it,  yet,  as  it  ought  not,  so  probably  it  would  not,  be 
the  first  rule  with  which  he  would  have  begun  his  instructions." 

On  whichever  principle  you  arrange  your  background,  you 
must  remember  that  it  should  relieve  the  figure,  and  not  pro- 
duce an  inlaid  effect,  and  that  it  should  present  with  the  fig- 
ure an  agreeable  breadth  of  light  and  shade. 


104  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

When  will  background  manufacturers  supply  gradated 
screens  ?  They  all  tell  you  that  it  is  impossible  to  produce 
!  them.  This  I  know  to  be  an  error.  They  are  difficult  to 
paint,  but  I  know  from  actual  experience  that  the  thing  can 
be  done.  If  photographers  would  insist  upon  having  what 
they  wanted,  they  would  get  it.  They  should  not  be  content 
to  use  anything  with  which  the  manufacturers  choose  to  sup- 
ply them. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ACCESSORIES. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  one  part  of  their  art  have  photogra- 
phers so  outraged  nature  as  in  the  choice  of  accessories  and 
the  make-up  of  their  pictures. 

Let  me  turn  over  the  leaves  of  an  album,  and  describe  one 
or  two  of  the  pictures  contained  therein. 

No.  i.  A  portrait  of  a  lady  in  an  evening  dress,  walking 
on  the  sea-shore;  in  consideration  of  her  thin  shoes,  that 
part  of  the  sands  on  which  she  is  standing  is  carpeted. 

No.  2  represents  a  veteran  photographer  standing  on  a 
terrace.  The  terrace  is  carpeted,  and  on  it  stands  a  pedestal 
and  column,  round  which  is  festooned  a  curtain  elaborately 
tied  up  in  various  places  with  cord  and  enormous  tassels. 
The  distant  landscape  is  delicately  and  well  done,  but  adds 
force  to  the  absurdity  of  the  curtain  in  the  open  air. 

No.  3.  A  gentleman  standing  before  a  profile  balustrade 
and  pillar,  with  landscape  behind  representing  distant  moun- 
tains. The  light  on  the  figure  is  from  the  right,  that  on  the 
balustrade  from  the  left.    The  shadow  of  the  column  falls  on 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  105 

the  distant  mountains,  which  are  much  more  clearly  denned 
than  the  head  of  the  figure. 

No.  4.  A  lady  reading  at  a  window,  but  the  light  comes 
from  the  opposite  direction.  The  shadow  of  the  window- 
curtain  falls  on  the  sky. 

No.  5  represents  a  gentleman  with  a  gas  chandelier,  globes 
and  all,  sprouting  out  of  the  top  of  his  head. 

There  are  one  hundred  pictures  in  the  book,  many  of  them 
from  the  most  popular  studios.  There  is  a  column  or  balus- 
trade in  seventy-eight  of  these  cartes.  And  yet  photogra- 
phers accurately  represent  nature,  and  are  surprised  their 
profession  is  not  recognized  as  a  fine  art  !* 

A  curtain  is  allowable,  because  it  is  possible ;  but  the  use 
of  the  column  is  open  to  very  grave  doubt,  and  the  two 
together  are  so  exceedingly  improbable  as  to  be  almost 
absurd.  It  is  true,  the  employment  of  these  accessories  as  a 
background  is  to  be  found  in  the  pictures  of  some  great 
painters,  but  the  tricks  of  one  art  may  not  be  applicable  to 
another.  The  column  and  curtain  are  conventional.  Now, 
conventionalities  may  be  right  in  an  art  like  painting,  where 
a  good  deal  of  license  has  been  allowed,  and  has  become 
sanctioned  by  custom  ;  but  photography  is  a  new  art,  the  re- 
sults of  which  are  supposed  to  be  taken  direct  from  nature, 
and  is  without  precedents.  It  is  an  art  in  which  departure 
from  truth  becomes  absurd.  We,  the  workers  in  the  first 
half-century  of  its  existence,  are  the  makers  of  precedents ; 
let  us  be  careful,  then,  that  they  are  not  misleading  and  dan- 
gerous ones. 

Photography  is  the  most  imitative  of  all  the  arts,  and  pho- 


*  This  was  written  eleven  years  ago.  The  column  and  balustrade  are 
nearly  extinct,  but  accessories  are  still  anything  but  perfect.  Those  at 
present  used  offend  chiefly  by  their  loudness  and  obtrusiveness. 


106  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

tographers  the  greatest  imitators,  as  they  have  shown  by  the 
way  they  have  followed  and  adopted  much  that  is  bad  in  the 
practice  of  painters ;  and  perhaps  the  worst  of  these  imita- 
tions has  been  this  column  and  curtain  conventionality  for 
most  of  their  sitters,  when  it  is  probable  that  few  under  the 
rank  of  those  who  dwell  in  palaces  ever  naturally  have  the 
opportunity  of  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  such  accessories. 
In  painted  pictures  the  column  is  shown  with  some  chance 
of  possibility,  but  the  way  in  which  it  has  been  used  in  pho- 
tography has  been  ridiculously  absurd,  it  generally  being 
placed  on  a  carpet.  Now  everybody  must  be  open  to  the 
conviction  that  marble  or  stone  pillars  are  not  built  on  car- 
pets or  oil-cloth  for  a  foundation.  But  there  was  a  lower 
depth.  Wooden  columns  were  not  bad  enough,  nor  cheap 
enough,  so  recourse  was  had  to  imitations  of  these  sham 
pillars,  manufactured  out  of  flat  boards  and  canvas,  and 
painted  in  perspective  that  looked  every  way  in  vain  for  the 
point  of  sight ;  if  any  of  the  lines  were  right,  it  was  on  the 
principle  that  makes  a  clock  that  does  not  go,  right  at  one 
second  of  the  day  at  least.  The  violent  light  is  often  repre- 
sented as  coming  from  the  opposite  direction  to  that  which 
illuminated  the  figure.  Then,  by  a  stroke  of  genius,  some- 
body extended  the  application  of  these  profile  slips  to  the  rep- 
resentation of  other  objects,  such  as  chairs  (on  which,  being 
flat,  it  was  impossible  to  sit  down),  piano-fortes,  fireplaces, 
French  windows,  and  everything  that  was  capable  of  being 
caricatured  in  this  manner.  But  the  "  crowning  glory ' '  of  this 
kind  of  sham  furniture  was  the  multutn  in parvo,  or  ' '  universal, ' ' 
that  Protean  construction  which  was  at  one  minute  a  piano- 
forte, and  at  another  a  bookcase — a  sort  of  economical 
houseful  of  furniture  in  one  piece.  This  was  certainly  an  im- 
provement on  the  slips  ;  and  if  manufacturers  would  only  add 
a  little  taste  to  their  cabinet  work,  suppress  the  rococo  orna- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  107 

mentation,  and  make  them  much  plainer,  they  might  be  of 
use  where  the  very  best  work  is  not  necessary. 

But  if  you  have  any  pride  in  your  art,  if  you  desire  to  do 
the  best  that  can  be  done,  you  must  eschew  imitations  and 
have  nothing  in  your  studio  but  genuine  furniture  of  the  best 
kind,  and  of  good  design  and  character.  When  the  photog- 
rapher is  furnishing,  he  would  find  it  a  good  plan  to  fit  up, 
not  only  his  studio,  but  his  reception-rooms  also,  with  chairs 
of  different  patterns— a  "  Harlequin  Set,"  as  collectors  of  old 
china  would  call  it — so  that  he  may  be  able  to  make  a  con- 
stant variety  in  his  pictures.  He  would  do  well  to  avoid  the 
elaborately  carved,  high-backed  chairs,  so  constantly  seen  in 
photography,  and  seldom  anywhere  else,  the  high  backs  of 
which  often  stick  out  round  the  head  like  a  Gothic  glory ;  if 
this  chair  be  used  at  all,  it  should  be  so  arranged  that  the 
head  of  the  sitter  is  quite  clear  of  it.  Dining-room  and 
library  chairs  are  always  useful ;  so  also  is  that  kind  of  chair 
to  which  the  name  of  Prie-Dieu  is  given,  especially  for  stand- 
ing figures.  It  is  very  difficult  to  meet  with  a  good  arm-chair 
suitable  for  photographic  purposes.  The  chairs  of  the  present 
day  are  made  more  for  comfort  than  appearance,  and  are  so 
low  that  the  sitter  is  dwarfed  and  foreshortened.  It  would 
pay  manufacturers  to  employ  a  good  designer,  to  supply  them 
with  patterns,  and  make  them  for  the  profession. 

After  chairs  naturally  follow  tables.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  say  anything  against  the  little  round  table,  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  to  be  seen  in  many 
early  photographic  portraits,  the  use  of  which  is  now  gone 
out,  except  in  the  smallest  and  lowest  glass  sheds.  The  fur- 
niture in  a  picture  should  give  an  idea  that  there  is  space  in 
the  room;  this  is  not  done  when  a  small  table  is  employed, 
obviously  because  there  is  no  room  for  a  larger  one.  A  long, 
oval  table,  about  three  feet  six  inches  by  one  foot  six  inches, 


108  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

is  a  very  useful  size  and  shape  ;  it  should  be  made  light,  and 
upon  large  castors,  that  it  may  be  easily  moved.  This  should 
be  provided  with  one  or  two  good  covers  of  a  quiet  pattern. 
In  a  table-cover,  as  in  the  covers  of  chairs  and  cushions, 
violent  and  "  noisy"  designs  should  be  avoided.  Asachange 
from  the  plain  table,  a  more  elaborate  carved  oak-table  may 
be  admitted  for  occasional  use,  and  so  may  a  judiciously 
selected  cabinet;  but  it  must  be  always  remembered,  in  in- 
troducing these  accessories,  that  it  is  the  portrait  of  the  sitter 
that  is  required,  and  which  must  be  most  prominent,  and  not 
the  magnificence  of  the  fittings  of  the  studio,  which  may  be 
"  richly  suited,  but  unsuitable." 

Some  photographers  employ  a  table  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered,  to  suit  the  stature  of  the  sitter,  by  means  of  rack- 
work.  This,  in  the  hands  of  a  photographer  of  great  judg- 
ment, may  be  a  very  useful  accessory;  but  it  is  a  power  that 
should  be  employed  very  sparingly,  and  within  very  narrow 
limits.  If  it  were  raised  too  high,  it  would  dwarf  the  figure 
by  comparison,  or,  in  the  reverse  case,  by  screwing  it  down 
too  low,  it  would  transform  the  sitter  into  a  giant,  reminding 
us  of  the  carte-de-visite  of  the  short  man  whom  Punch  repre- 
sented as  having  his  portrait  taken  surrounded  by  toy  furni- 
ture. The  same  principle  has  also  been  applied  to  the  pedes- 
tal and  column. 

The  great  idea  of  many  photographers,  in  taking  standing 
figures,  seems  to  have  been  that  they  must  have  something  to 
lean  upon,  and,  therefore,  the  want  was  supplied  by  a  pedestal 
that  outraged  nature,  as  I  have  already  said,  most  abominably. 
It  is  not  necessary,  to  an  easy  and  graceful  effect,  that  the  fig- 
ure should  appear  to  be  too  tired  to  stand  on  its  own  feet. 
Lounging  is  no  more  graceful  than  is  a  lisping  and  insipid 
manner  of  speaking  gracious,  but  tends  more  to  what  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  called  the  most  hateful  of  all  hateful  quali- 


PICTORIAL   EFFECT  IN   PHOTOGRAPHY.  109 

ties — affectation.  If  people  look  well  in  a  standing  position 
at  all  (which  some  certainly  do  not,  and  should  never  be  taken 
so),  they  will  be  found  to  do  so  without  the  aid  of  a  prop ; 
but  still,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  and  because  some  people  have 
been  so  often  taken  with  a  support  that  it  has  become  a  cus- 
tom with  them  from  which  they  do  not  like  to  depart,  it  is  as 
well  to  have  something  of  the  sort  at  hand.  The  best  piece 
of  furniture  of  the  kind  is  a  cabinet.  A  low  bookcase  is  not 
objectionable,  neither  would  be  a  well-designed  what-not ; 
but  the  ugly,  meaningless  pedestal  should  never  be  used.  I 
should  consider  I  was  doing  a  great  service  to  the  art  progress 
of  photography,  if  I  could  induce  all  photographers  who  have 
columns  and  pedestals  to  burn  them  at  once.  Do  not  send 
them  to  the  broker ;  he  may  sell  them  again,  to  do  further 
mischief. 

A  few  ottomans  and  foot-stools  of  various  sizes  should  always 
form  part  of  the  furniture  of  the  studio.  They  are  especially 
useful  in  grouping  children.  The  carpet  of  the  room  should 
be  of  a  small,  neat  pattern,  containing  no  great  contrasts  of 
dark  and  light. 

A  great  deal  can  be  done,  and  very  beautiful  pictures  made, 
by  the  mixture  of  the  real  and  artificial  in  a  picture.  Although, 
for  choice,  I  should  prefer  everything  in  a  photograph  being 
from  nature,  I  admit  a  picture  to  be  right  when  the  "  effect " 
is  natural,  however  obtained.  It  is  not  the  fact  of  reality  that 
is  required,  but  the  truth  of  imitation  that  constitutes  a  vera- 
cious picture.  Cultivated  minds  do  not  require  to  believe 
that  they  are  deceived,  and  that  they  look  on  actual  nature, 
when  they  behold  a  pictorial  representation  of  it.  An  edu- 
cated observer  does  not,  like  that  Moor  to  whom  Bruce,  the 
African  traveller,  gave  the  picture  of  a  fish,  believe  that  the 
artist  had  made  a  reality,  and  say,  "If  this  fish,  at  the  last 
day,  should  rise  against  you  and  say,  '  Thou  hast  given  me  a 


110  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

body,  but  not  a  living  soul,'  what  should  you  reply?"  Art 
is  not  the  science  of  deception,  but  that  of  giving  pleasure, 
the  word  pleasure  being  used  in  its  purest  and  loftiest  sense. 
For  this  purpose — that  is,  the  mixture  of  the  real  with  the 
artificial  —  the  accessories  of  the  studio  should  receive  the 
addition  of  picturesque  or  ivy-covered  logs  of  wood,  ferns, 
tufts  of  grass,  etc.,  either  growing  in  low  pots  or  gathered 
fresh.  It  will  be  found  easy  to  make  up  picturesque  fore- 
grounds with  these  materials,  behind  which  a  painted  view  or 
sky  may  be  placed.  If  the  background  be  well  painted,  it 
will  be  found  to  unite  very  naturally  with  the  foreground. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  linear  perspective  be  avoided,  and 
that  the  light  fall  on  the  figures  in  the  same  direction  as  it 
does  on  the  painted  screen. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

SOME  OLD  NOTIONS  TOUCHING  PORTRAITURE. 

Having  concluded  my  task  as  far  as  relates  to  the  composi- 
tion of  lines,  and  having  touched  upon  photographic  portrait- 
ure and  all  concerning  it,  before  I  commence  what  I  have  to 
say  on  chiaro-oscuro,  I  feel  tempted  to  interpolate  a  chapter, 
culled  from  a  rare  old  quarto,  a  translation  of  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  last  century,  and  which,  from  the  quaintness  of 
its  manner,  will  be  interesting  and  readable,  as  well  as  for  the 
downright  good  sense  and  sound  teaching  it  contains.  Much 
of  what  I  have  extracted  will  be  found  of  great  value  to  the 
portrait  photographer. 

The  title  of  the  book  is  "  The  Art  of  Painting  in  all  Us 
Branches,  Methodically  Demonstrated  by  Discourses  and 
Plates,  and  Exemplified  by  Remarks  on  the  Paintings  of  the 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  Ill 

Best  Masters,  and  the  Perfections  and  Oversights  Laid  Open. 
By  Gerald  de  Lairesse.  Translated  by  John  Frederick  Fritsch, 
Painter."  This  book  was  written  long  before  Reynolds, 
Gainsborough,  and  those  famous  painters  who  revived  the  art 
of  portraiture,  became  known  to  the  world.  This  is  what  the 
translator  says  of  his  author  and  his  book ;  he  might  have 
been  talking  satirically  of  photographic  art  teaching  in  our 
own  day :  "  The  author's  known  abilities  and  great  reputation 
in  Holland  having  justly  recommended  him  to  the  esteem  of 
the  most  knowing  there,  I  thought  it  very  proper  to  make  him 
speak  English ;  and  the  rather  (to  use  his  own  reason)  for 
that,  though  many  excellent  authors  have  written  on  painting, 
yet,  in  bulk,  they  seem  rather  to  cry  up  the  art  and  the  artist 
than  lay  down  solid  rules  for  attainment ;  to  which  I  may  add 
that  those  authors  are  mostly  useless  to  an  Englishman,  and 
few  or  none  copious  enough  to  answer  general  purpose ;  nor, 
at  best,  are  of  general  service  in  England,  where  fresh  and 
fair  nature  is  preferred  before  the  brown  and  warm  coloring 
of  some  other  countries,  especially  Italy,  where  the  best  books 
have  been  written  on  the  subject.  But  principally  for  that, 
I  think  nothing  has  been  published  here  so  learned,  full,  and 
complete,  and  so  well  explained  by  plates  and  examples  as  the 
author  will  be  found  to  be ;  nor,  perhaps,  wherein  portraiture 
(a  branch  which  England  mightily  affects)  is  so  copiously 
handled." 

Passing  by  some  hundreds  of  pages  on  pencilling,  beauty, 
ordonnance,  or  composition,  coloring,  landscapes,  etc.,  let  us 
extract  some  sentences  from  Book  VII.,  "On  Portraiture," 
the  subject  we  have  in  hand. 

"  Since  we  meet  with  no  precedence  in  the  art,  nor  pretend 
to  insist  on  ceremonies,  we  shall  treat  of  things  as  they  occur 
to  us,  and  as  clearly  and  profitably  as  possible. 


112  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

"As  in  music  and  singing,  a  good  ear  is  requisite,  so  in 
portraiture  it  is  impossible  to  excel  without  a  good  eye ;  such 
an  one,  I  mean,  as  is  governed  by  sedate  and  sober  sensation, 
and  not  by  self-love  and  passion.  Next,  we  must  be  thoroughly 
judicious  in  the  graceful  choice  of  light,  and  the  place  where 
the  person  is  to  sit,  that  the  face  may  appear  to  the  best 
advantage;  and  then  the  body  is  to  be  disposed  to  the  most 
natural  and  becoming  posture.  As  for  the  choice  of  light, 
in  order  to  apply  it  most  advantageously  for  the  benefit  of 
either  sex,  it  is  certainly  a  matter  of  great  moment,  since  the 
fair  sex  commonly  partake  of  more  delicacy  and  grace  than 
men,  so  they  must  have  a  light  as  beautiful  and  agreeable  as 
their  persons." 

But  our  author  is  heterodox  here.  He  says :  "I  think  those 
masters  have  made  the  best  pieces  who  have  chosen  a  front- 
light."  He  should  have  been  painter  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  continuation  of  the  subject  of  light  and  shade,  he  men- 
tions some  things  that  should  be  avoided  by  those  who  imitate 
M.  Adam-Salomon. 

"We  see  that  many,  without  difference,  be  the  figure  in 
full  proportion  or  in  little,  give  the  touches  under  the  nose 
so  black  and  dark  that  it  seems  as  if  a  black  beetle  were  pro- 
ceeding thence;  whereas  it  is  certain,  and  nature  teaches  it, 
that  when  the  light  falls  strong  on  the  nose,  the  nostrils  and 
their  ground-shades  can  never  appear  so  black;  and  yet  some 
think  they  have  done  great  feats  in  using  force  and  strength, 
and  will  do  it  even  in  a  fair  and  tender  face,  and  no  bigger 
than  the  palm  of  the  hand ;  although  the  deepest  black  should  I 
not  have  force  enough  to  shade  the  other  objects  of  a  darker 
color,  such  as  hair,  a  cloak,  or  other  garment ;  by  which  sort 
of  management,  the  face  seems  to  jump  out  of  the  frame,  and 


* 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  118 

to  desert  the  wig,  hair,  and  garment.  We  must  not  so  under- 
stand when  we  teach  that  the  face  must  have  the  main  light ; 
we  mean  only  that  all  ought  to  keep  due  order,  that  it  may 
look  natural." 

On  dress,  accessories,  and  the  management  of  the  sitter, 
we  have  the  following  capital  remarks,  which  are  as  applicable 
to  photography  as  to  painting.  There  will  be  noticed  a  curi- 
ous vein  of  satire  throughout.  He  is  rather  hard  on  the 
ladies. 

"  Self-conceit  and  self-love  seem  natural  to  all,  but  especially 
to  the  female  sex,  who,  whether  their  pictures  are  drawn  on 
their  own  accounts,  or  through  the  desire  of  others,  imagine 
they  deserve  much  homage.  Nor  stops  it  here  ;  for  although 
they  may  possess  a  tolerable  share  of  beauty,  yet  that  is  not 
satisfactory  enough ;  they  must  be  flattered,  and  their  pictures 
painted  in  the  most  beautiful  light ;  and  unhappy  is  the  painter 
who  abates  but  half  a  drachm  of  such  a  beauty. 

"  For  these  reasons  the  master  is  obliged  to  have  a  principal 
regard  to  light  and  shade ;  but  to  the  light  chiefly,  since  it  is 
well  known  that  nothing  gives  greater  offence  to  ignorant 
people  than  shades,  and  still  more  when  they  are  strong  and 
broad ;  they  believe  they  speak  to  the  purpose  in  objecting : 
'  Well,  how  can  it  be  possible  that  my  neck  and  cheek  should 
have  such  large  shades,  when  I  daily  consult  my  glass  and  find 
my  skin  all  of  a  color  and  white  ? '  and  then  the  painter  is 
blamed.    But  are  not  such  reasons  weak  and  absurd  ? 

"It  is  evident  that  backgrounds  contribute  very  much  to 
the  charming  grace  of  objects ;  nay,  I  dare  say,  that  the 
decorum  mostly  depends  thereon  ;  and  though  many  imagine 
that  a  black  or  dark  ground  always  becomes  a  portrait,  yet  it 
is  no  rule,  since,  as  before  has  been  said,  each  individual 

8 


114  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

object  requires  a  particular  background ;  besides,  if  such 
things  were  to  be  taken  for  rules,  the  art  would  smell  too 
much  of  an  handicraft. 

"  It  may  not  be  foreign  to  our  main  design  to  put  the 
artist  in  mind  of  the  application  and  right  use  of  such 
materials  as  may  enrich  a  portrait,  and  make  it  look  the 
more  noble.  This  is  so  great  a  point  in  portraiture  that  when 
well  known  we  need  never  be  at  a  stand  through  the  mis- 
shape or  defects  we  often  meet  with  in  the  disposition  of  a 
portrait,  and  which  sometimes  must  not  be  hid,  since  we 
have  often  means  enough  for  obviating  them  with  seeming 
reason,  and  without  forcing  nature;  as  a  long  and  narrow  face 
may  be  helped  by  .a  hood  or  other  head-dress;  a  thick  and 
too  round  a  face  by  the  contrary  ;  a  figure  too  lonesome  may 
be  embellished  by  such  things  as  are  proper  to  it,  which  serve 
not  only  for  ornament  and  grandeur,  but  also  to  express  the 
sitter's  lustre  and  virtue ;  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
figure  of  the  sitter,  as  the  principal  object  of  the  piece,  fill  up 
the  major  part  of  it,  either  by  a  spreading  sway  of  the  posture, 
or  by  the  addition  of  some  proper  bywork,  by  which  means 
it  will  have  a  good  effect. 

"  Some  persons  may  be  too  long  and  sharp-nosed,  or  too 
hollow-eyed ;  for  such,  a  low  light  is  most  proper ;  but  when 
it  is  otherwise,  an  high  light.  In  this  manner,  a  judicious 
master  ought  to  help  the  defects  of  nature,  without  adding 
to  or  taking  anything  from  them  ;  yet,  to  the  sorrow  of  im- 
partial masters,  the  contrary  is  too  often  seen,  for  with  many 
portrait  painters  their  work  is  better  known  by  their  particu- 
lar manner  than  the  sitter  by  his  picture. 

"  I  think,  also,  that  the  common  and  useful  dress  of  a  per- 
son is  a  great  addition  to  likeness;  for  no  sooner  is  the  dress 
altered,  but  the  look  does  the  same,  and  shows  itself  either 
more  or  less  pleasing  and  agreeable.    Some  painters  keep  in 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  115 

their  room  for  the  use  of  all  their  sitters,  be  it  he  or  she, 
without  discrimination,  certain  pieces  of  cloth  and  velvet,  by 
which  they  imitate  the  Roman  manner;  but  thereby  the 
persons  represented  become  more  or  less  unknown." 

The  following  is  capital  advice  : 

"  The  painter  should  likewise  discover  and  know,  as  much 
as  possible,  the  nature  and  temper  of  the  person  sitting,  and 
in  what  circumstance  lies  his  favorite  pleasure,  that  he  may, 
when  sitting,  be  entertained  with  talk  pleasing  to  him,  and 
his  air  thereby  kept  steady  and  serene,  and  his  posture  natural 
and  easy;  avoiding  everything  tending  towards  sorrow  or 
frightful  relations,  for  these  are  apt  to  ruffle  the  mind  and  so 
to  decompose  the  face  that  it  cannot  easily  be  got  right  again  ; 
but  if  the  sitter  himself  do,  by  his  talk,  discover  his  own 
bent,  the  painter  ought  to  humor  him  to  the  last,  whether  it 
be  jocose  or  moderate,  without  exaggeration  or  diminution, 
yet  with  such  a  variety  as  not  to  prove  tiresome  and  make  the 
face  alter. 

"But  to  return  to  the  original  matter.  I  must  warn  the 
artists  not  to  give  in  too  much  to  what  is  common,  or  humor 
ignorant  people  so  much  as  not  to  reserve  to  themselves  some 
liberty  of  doing  what  they  think  proper  for  the  sake  of  repu- 
tation. Surely  this  cannot  be  strange  advice;  for  a  master 
who  prefers  money  before  art  has  no  more  dangerous  rock  to 
split  on,  since  the  ignorant  multitude  usually  insist  to  be  drawn 
according  to  their  own  whims.  One  says  to  a  good  master : 
'  Draw  me  thus,  or  thus ;  let  me  have  one  hand  on  my  breast, 
and  the  other  on  a  table ;  '  another  must  have  a  flower  in  his 
hand,  or  a  flower-pot  must  be  by  him ;  another  must  have  a 
dog,  or  other  creature,  in  his  lap ;  another  will  have  his  face 
turned  this  or  that  way ;  and  some  who  would  be  drawn  in 
the  Roman  manner,  must  be  set  off  by  a  globe  or  cloak  on 


116 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  table,  whether  such  ornaments  be  proper  or  not.  On 
mentioning  the  Roman  manner,  I  find  that  it  signifies  a  loose, 
airy  undress,  somewhat  savoring  of  the  mode,  but  in  no  wise 
agreeing  with  the  ancient  Roman  habit." 

This  is  admirable  and  true.  The  fine  gird  at  the  "  Roman 1 ' 
manner  is  capital.  In  the  author's  day  it  was  the  custom  to 
have  portraits  and  statues  habited  in  classical  costume,  with, 
perhaps,  the  addition  of  the  immense  "  Duvilliers  "  wigs  of 
the  period,  an  absurdity  that  West,  greatly  daring,  and  against 
the  advice  of  his  brother  artists,  broke  through  for  the  first 
time  in  his  "Death  of  Wolfe."  This  manner  of  trying  to 
make  the  sitter  look  a  much  finer  fellow  than  he  really  is,  has 
its  counterpart  at  the  present  time,  even  in  our  own  art,  and 
is  followed  by  photographers  who  will  defy  nature  and  stick 
to  precedent.    As  our  author  says  : 

"  Some  painters  will  keep  to  the  old  road,  because  it  is 
difficult  to  correct  a  rooted  evil ;  they  do  as  the  old  woman 
did,  who  being  exhorted  in  her  last  sickness  to  embrace  the 
true  faith,  answered,  '  She  would  follow  the  steps  of  her  fore- 
fathers, were  they  all  gone  to  the  devil.'  " 

There  is  a  pernicious  custom  amongst  some  inferior  photog- 
raphers, of  collecting  together  a  set  of  poses,  and  fitting  their 
sitters  to  them,  or  of  allowing  their  customers  to  select  their 
own,  no  matter  how  incongruous  the  thing  may  be,  so  that  it 
is  paid  for.  Photographers  should  learn  the  principles  of 
their  art,  and  then  invent  poses  for  themselves,  instead  of 
crowing  in  borrowed  plumes.  The  effect  is  peculiarly  ridicu- 
lous when  the  feathers  are  too  fine  for  the  bird,  and  the 
"artist"  endeavors  to  make  a  maid-servant  look  like  a 
duchess.    Here  would  be  a  time  to  introduce  your  column 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  117 


and  curtain,  if  you  like  !  Lairesse,  with  the  instinct  of  a  true 
artist,  is  very  severe  on  a  similar  practice. 

"  I  have  discovered  a  great  oversight  in  some  artists,  which 
is,  that  when  the  face  is  finished,  they  had  no  further  regard 
to  the  life,  but  chose  a  posture  at  pleasure  out  of  drawings 
and  prints,  without  considering  whether  it  suited  the  person, 
and  whether  the  figure  was  proper  to  the  condition  and  counte- 
nance of  the  sitter ;  nay,  whether  the  head  matched  the  body ; 
certainly  a  great  heedlessness.  If  things  be  done  without 
making  distinction  of  persons  and  their  conditions,  the  artist 
will  work  to  his  dishonor.  He  who  steals  thus  may  not, 
indeed,  call  the  work  his  own  without  reproach.  Some  will 
object,  as  Michael  Angelo  did  once  to  a  painter  who  practised 
it  with  success :  '  What  will  become  of  your  pictures  at  Dooms- 
day, when  the  parts  shall  return  to  their  own  wholes,  seeing 
your  works  are  made  up  of  stolen  pieces  f" 

In  another  place  the  writer  complains  of  those  who  take  the 
designs  of  others,  and,  by  transforming  them,  make  them 
their  own. 

"  What  one  artist  uses  in  the  distance  (he  says),  the  other, 
that  it  may  not  be  known,  brings  forward,  and  what  he  has 
represented  in  the  open  air,  the  other  contrives  in  a  dark 
room.  A  poor  method  of  concealment,  but  it  is  such  men's 
misfortune  to  be,  in  this  particular,  most  out  of  the  way  when 
they  think  they  do  best ;  for,  wanting  the  great  master's  wit, 
judgment,  and  apprehension,  they  have  no  true  notion  of  his 
conduct,  and,  therefore,  are  easily  misled,  and,  like  ^Esop's 
raven,  exposed  to  censure." 

I  have  only  given  a  slight  skimming  of  the  contents  of  this 
rare  old  book,  but  I  am  overrunning  my  space,  and  shall  con- 


118 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


elude  with  a  bit  that  might  have  been  written  anent  the  doings 
of  some  who  write  on  photography  and  art  at  the  present 
time. 

"We  find  many  artists  never  pleased  with  other  men's 
works ;  but  being  full  of  themselves,  despise  everything  they 
see,  and  this,  perhaps,  on  no  better  bottom  than  a  pique 
against  the  artist's  conversation,  talk,  dress,  or  money,  or  else 
because  of  his  greater  fame ;  and  yet  if  ten  persons  happen 
to  applaud  a  fine  picture  of  this  eyesore  master,  they  will  at  that 
juncture  chime  in  with  them,  to  screen  their  prejudice.  And, 
on  the  contrary,  if  but  a  single  person  afterwards  finds  fault, 
they  immediately  turn  the  tables  against  ten  others.  Again, 
if  a  piece  of  their  friend  be  brought  on  the  carpet,  though 
never  so  faulty,  they  will  applaud  and  justify  it  at  any  rate, 
though  against  their  own  convictions  of  conscience,  if  they 
have  any.  But  this  partial  and  prejudiced  humor  is  most 
prevalent  in  those  who  know  least." 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CHIARO-OSCURO. 

The  natural  and  simple  effect  of  light,  with  its  attendant 
shadow,  on  objects,  is  given  with  greater  truth  by  good  pho- 
tography than  by  any  other  method  of  delineation,  although 
in  ignorant  hands  it  may  degenerate  into  weakness,  or,  as  is 
more  often  the  case,  take  the  form  of  patches  of  black  and 
white,  unconnected  by  gradation.  However,  in  these  chap- 
ters, I  assume  that  the  student  is  a  good  manipulator,  and  has 
a  sufficient  technical  knowledge  to  render  it  unnecessary  for 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  119 

me  to  say  anything  on  that  part  of  the  subject ;  I  shall,  there- 
fore, confine  myself  to  a  consideration  of  how  best  light  and 
shade  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  produce  the  most  beautiful 
and  striking  pictorial  effect.  A  knowledge  of  how  to  mass 
light  and  shade,  with  its  intermediate  gradations,  connecting 
one  with  another,  to  which  the  name  of  chiaro-oscuro  has 
been  given,  is  most  necessary  for  the  student  to  attain,  and 
can  only  be  thoroughly  learned  by  careful  observation  of  nature 
and  the  study  of  the  works  of  those  masters  who  have  excelled 
in  this  important  branch  of  the  art ;  there  are  a  few  simple 
rules,  however,  a  knowledge  of  which  will  assist  the  student 
in  his  further  studies  in  this  direction.  It  is  to  these  rules 
that  I  now  propose  to  call  his  attention. 

Chiaro-oscuro  not  only  lends  a  "something  more  exquisite 
still "  to  the  most  perfect  outline,  but  clothes  an  inferior  de- 
sign with  a  beauty  it  would  not  otherwise  possess. 

This  is  notably  the  case  in  the  pictures  of  Rembrandt,  often 
ill-drawn,  always  vulgar  in  choice  of  form,  but  of  priceless 
value  for  their  marvellous  chiaro-oscuro,  the  alchemy  of  his  art 
transforming  dross  into  pure  gold. 

That  which,  as  a  mere  sketch,  was  flat  and  monotonous, 
when  clothed  in  cleverly-managed  light  and  shade,  stands 
forth  as  a  reality.  It  gives  depth  and  roundness  and  space  ; 
it  also  contributes  infinitely  to  expression  and  sentiment ; 
likeness,  even,  can  be  altered  by  the  way  in  which  this  great 
power  is  managed.  If  it  be  remembered,  that  by  the  minute 
modifications  in  the  place,  form,  and  depth  of  shadows,  the 
whole  of  the  infinite  range  of  expression  of  the  human  face  is 
determined,  the  importance  of  judicious  lighting  and  skilful 
disposal  of  shadows  will  be  pretty  well  appreciated.  Many 
of  my  readers  will  remember  the  marvellous  exhibition  of 
Herr  Schultz,  at  the  Egyptian  Hall,  who  exhibited  every  ethno- 
logical type  on  his  own  face,  principally  by  the  aid  of  lights 


120  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

and  shadows  skilfully  cast  from  different  directions.  The 
magic  of  light  and  shade  has  become  a  proverb. 

The  word  "  chiaro-oscuro,"  derived  from  the  Italian,  and 
literally  meaning  light-dark,  by  no  means  clearly  conveys  the 
idea  of  what  it  is  intended  to  express.  Usage  has,  however, 
reconciled  us  to  the  use  of  the  term  to  express,  not  only  the 
|  means  of  representing  light  and  shadow,  but  the  arrangement 
|  and  distribution  of  lights  and  darks  of  every  gradation  in 
masses  in  a  picture,  so  as  to  produce  pictorial  effect — just  as  j 
the  word  composition  is  used  to  express  the  arrangement 
of  lines. 

The  objects  of  chiaro-oscuro  are,  first,  to  give  a  pleasing 
general  effect  to  the  whole  picture,  by  dividing  the  space  into 
masses  of  light  and  shade,  giving  breadth  of  effect,  and  pre- 
venting that  confusion  and  perplexity  incident  to  the  eye 
being  attracted  by  numerous  parts  of  equal  importance  at  the 
same  time  ;  secondly,  to  place  before  the  spectator  at  once 
the  principal  object  represented,  so  that  the  eye  may  first  see 
it,  and  be  gradually  and  insensibly  led  to  examine  the  whole 
picture ;  to  keep  parts  in  obscurity,  and  to  relieve  others,  ac- 
cording to  their  pictorial  value  ;  and,  thirdly,  to  aid  the  sen- 
timent and  expression  of  the  picture. 

It  will  be  seen  that  I  have  omitted  relief  as  one  of  the  objects 
of  chiaro-oscuro.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  certain  amount  of 
relief  is  of  advantage  to  a  picture ;  but  to  strive  too  much  for 
this  quality  would  be  sacrificing  a  much  greater  advantage — 
breadth — for  the  sake  of  an  effect  which  could  not,  in  a  pic- 
ture, be  made  to  compete  with  the  perfect  manner  in  which  it 
is  given  in  a  toy  —  the  stereoscope.  Relief  is  not  the  object 
of  the  picture  j  if  it  were,  the  artist  would  have  to  first  see  the 
place  where  it  was  to  be  hung,  that  he  might  see  the  direction 
in  which  the  light  would  fall  upon  it,  and  his  chief  considera- 
tion would  be  that  the  objects  in  the  picture  should  be  lighted 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  121 

by  the  window  of  the  room,  his  chief  aim  to  produce  an  illu- 
sion, perhaps  the  most  vulgar  thing  in  art.  Twining,  in  his 
Philosophy  of  Painting,  says,  on  this  subject:  '  'Although  re- 
lief may  be  considered  as  an  additional  advantage,  and  de- 
serves attention  as  long  as  other  points  are  not  sacrificed  to 
it,  the  artist  would  decidedly  take  a  false  view  of  the  calling 
of  art  who  would  set  it  up  as  a  goal,  directing  towards  it  all 
his  exertions ;  and,  fortunately,  to  strive,  as  some  have  done, 
for  this  kind  of  eminence,  generally  involves  the  neglect  of 
other  attainments  which  ought  to  have  stood  foremost-  We 
cannot  expect  to  see  those  powers  which,  like  projection  and 
relief,  may  be  termed  practical,  imitated  in  perfection,  with 
those  which,  like  expression  and  beauty,  are  fruits  of  the  im- 
agination and  sentiment ;  our  physical  nature  is  opposed  to 
it.  But  in  the  picture,  chiaro-oscuro,  or  light  and  shade,  has 
other  purposes  to  fulfil  than  those  which  in  nature  serve  to 
mark  the  rotundity  and  projection  of  form.  A  happy  distri- 
bution of  the  lights  and  shades  becomes  of  itself  a  source  of 
pleasing  effect  and  beauty;  at  times,  by  concentrating  the 
effect,  and  consequently  the  impressions  of  the  observer  to- 
wards a  given  point ;  at  times,  by  extending  the  interest,  with 
the  dispersing  of  the  lights,  over  a  wider  scene.  It  is  towards 
the  attainment  of  effect  that  the  varied  resources  of  light  and 
shade  are  thus  chiefly  directed.  Without  this  enlivening  prin- 
ciple, the  eye  of  the  observer,  satisfied  with  a  first  glance  at  a 
picture,  would  immediately  seek  for  recreation  and  amusement 
elsewhere,  so  necessary  it  is  that  favor  and  attention  should  be 
won  in  the  first  place  by  the  external  appearance,  in  order 
that  those  more  hidden  perfections  which  are  the  result  of 
profound  thought  and  assiduous  study  may  in  turn  receive 
their  due  consideration." 

I  may  quote  a  much  greater  authority  to  the  same  effect. 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  says:    '  'This  favorite  quality  of  giving 


122  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

objects  relief,  and  which  De  Piles  and  all  the  critics  have  con- 
sidered as  a  requisite  of  the  greatest  importance,  was  not  one 
of  those  objects  which  much  engaged  the  attention  of  Titian. 
Painters  of  inferior  rank  have  far  exceeded  him  in  producing 
this  effect.  This  was  a  great  object  of  attention  when  art  was 
in  its  infant  state,  as  it  is  at  present  with  the  vulgar  and  igno- 
rant, who  feel  the  highest  satisfaction  in  seeing  a  figure  which, 
as  they  say,  looks  as  if  they  could  walk  round  it.  But  how- 
ever low  I  may  rate  this  pleasure  of  deception,  I  should  not 
oppose  it,  did  it  not  oppose  itself  to  a  quality  of  a  much  higher 
kind,  by  counteracting  entirely  that  fulness  of  manner  which 
is  so  difficult  to  express  in  words,  but  which  is  found  in  per- 
fection in  the  best  works  of  Correggio  and,  we  may  add,  of 
Rembrandt."  Lastly,  we  have  the  dictum  of  Mr.  Ruskin, 
who  tells  us  that  this  solidity  or  projection  is  the  sign  and  the 
evidence  of  the  vilest  and  lowest  mechanism  which  art  can  be 
insulted  by  giving  name  to. 

It  is  admitted  by  all  writers  on  the  subject  that  mere  natu- 
ral light  and  shade,  however  separately  and  individually  true, 
is  not  always  legitimate  chiaro-oscuro  in  art.  In  nature,  gener- 
ally, light  is  shed  indiscriminately  on  all  objects  ;  subordinate 
objects  may  be  brought  prominently  forward,  and  important 
features  may  be  cast  into  shade.  It  is  not  so  with  art.  Art 
must  select  and  arrange,  or  it  is  no  longer  art.  But  although 
separate  truth  may  not  be  true  art,  true  art  requires  that  there 
should  be  no  absence  of  truth ;  but  the  truth  must  be  repre- 
sented as  a  whole.  Hence  arises  the  indispensable  necessity 
of  judicious  selection  in  the  subject  and  treatment  of  a  picture, 
so  that  art  may  be  observed  and  truth  preserved.  In  no  part 
of  art  is  judicious  selection  of  more  consequence  than  in  the 
choice  of  light  and  shade,  because  chiaro-oscuro  so  governs 
and  contracts  the  effect  of  a  picture  that  a  subject  may  be 
either  beautiful  or  the  reverse,  according  to  the  way  in  which 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


123 


it  is  clothed  in  light  and  shade.  Photograph  a  landscape  with 
the  sun  shining  at  the  back  of  the  camera,  and  the  effect  will 
be  flat,  tame,  and  uninteresting ;  take  the  same  view  with  the 
light  coming  at  the  side,  and  the  difference  will  be  evident ; 
the  magic  of  chiaro-oscuro  will  be  at  once  felt.  Barry,  speak- 
ing of  the  scenes  about  Hyde  Park,  Richmond,  Windsor,  etc., 
says :  "  The  difference  between  a  meridian  and  evening  light, 
the  reposes  of  extensive  shadow,  the  half-lights  and  catching 
splendors  that  those  scenes  sometimes  exhibit,  compared  with 
their  ordinary  appearance,  do  abundantly  show  how  much  is 
gained  by  seizing  upon  those  transitory  moments  of  fascination 
when  nature  appears  with  such  accumulated  advantage.  If 
this  selection  be  so  necessary  respecting  objects  intrinsically 
beautiful,  how  much  more  studiously  ought  it  to  be  endeavored 
at  when  we  are  obliged  to  take  up  matters  of  less  consequence. 
How  many  of  the  deservedly  esteemed  productions  of  the 
Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  would  be  thrown  aside,  as  intol- 
erable and  disgusting,  were  it  not  for  the  beautiful  effects  of 
their  judicious  distribution  of  lights  and  shades.  Art  is  selec- 
tion ;  it  is  perfect  when  this  selection  is  pursued  throughout 
the  whole,  and  it  is  even  so  valuable,  when  extended  to  a  part 
only,  as  to  become  a  passport  for  the  rest." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here,  incidentally,  that  Barry  does 
not  say  that  art  consists  in  the  manner  of  holding  a  pencil,  or 
laying  on  color,  or  handling  a  modelling-tool ;  he  does  not 
even  say  that  it  consists  in  the  embodiment  of  the  imagination 
by  means  of  these  implements ;  but  he  distinctly  states,  what 
has  been  denied  by  some  modern  critics  when  dealing  with 
photography,  that  art  is  selection,  and  is  most  perfect  when 
the  selection  is  the  most  judicious. 

It  is  the  same  with  portraiture  as  with  landscape  photogra- 
phy— beauty  will  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  treatment. 
Take  a  beautiful  face,  place  it  fronting  the  light,  and  photo- 


124  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

graph  it ;  the  result  will  be  flat,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  ugly. 
The  most  amiable  face  may  be  made  to  look  cross,  and  even 
savage,  by  excess  of  top  light.  It  is  strange  that  the  effect  of 
light  on  the  face  is  not  more  studied  on  the  stage,  where  facial 
expression  is  seriously  interfered  with  by  the  unnatural  effect 
of  the  light  coming  from  below. 

Light  and  shade  are  always  at  our  command — in  portraiture, 
at  least,  and  in  some  degree  in  landscape — to  compensate  for 
our  inability  to  regulate  the  drawing  to  any  great  extent.  I 
do  not  say  we  can,  like  the  enamellers,  make  an  ugly  face 
''  beautiful  forever,"  but  we  can  make  a  beautiful  picture  out 
of  ugly  objects  if  we  can  throw  over  them  the  glamor  and 
witchery  of  perfect  chiaro-oscuro. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

CHIARO-OSCURO. — "  DETAIL  OR  DEFINITION." 

Although  there  are,  between  white  and  black,  an  infinite 
variety  of  gradations,  it  will  be  convenient  to  divide  them 
into  light  (i),  half-light  (2),  middle  tone  (3),  half-dark  (4), 
dark  (5).  If  a  picture  were  composed  of  light  and  half-light 
only,  the  effect  would  be  weak  and  flat.    In  photographing 


["  "  •  - 

1  

1  2  3  4  5 

Fig.  23. 

distant  views,  which  consist  principally  of  light  tones,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  introduce  some  dark  object  in  the  foreground, 
to  give  force  and  consistency.    Turner  has  carried  this  prin- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  125 

ciple  to  perfection.  Many  of  his  most  beautiful  pictures,  full 
of  air  and  space,  consisting  chiefly  of  delicate  grays  and  blues, 
are  brought  into  focus  by  the  introduction  of  the  dark  foliage 
of  the  stone  pine,  supported  by  some  dark  spots  in  the  fore- 
ground, the  darks  being  united  to  the  lights  by  delicate  and 
infinitely  varied  half-tones  in  the  middle  distance.  Rem- 
brandt's method  was  exactly  the  reverse  of  this  in  practice, 
but  the  same  in  principle  ;  his  pictures  are  composed  of  half- 
dark  and  dark,  having  one  small  focus  of  brilliant  light,  united 
in  a  magical  manner  to  the  darks  by  half-tone.  The  marvel- 
lous effect  of  his  pictures  is  due,  in  my  opinion,  more  to  the 
judicious  management  of  the  half-tones  than  to  the  strong 
contrasts  and  forcible  effects  of  his  light  and  shade.  In  his 
pictures  and  etchings  will  always  be  noticed  a  wonderful 
transparency  in  the  shadows,  which  is  almost  entirely  due  to 
the  half-tones  with  which  they  are  associated.  Claude,  Tur- 
ner, and  Rembrandt  were  alike  in  their  management  in  one 
respect — they  always  forced  the  brilliance  of  their  lights  by 
the  opposition  of  the  strongest  darks.  When  Claude  and 
Turner  represent  the  sun,  they  place  near  it  their  darkest  dark. 
This  effect  will  always  be  seen  in  nature ;  if  the  sun  is  setting 
behind  a  tree,  the  tree  will  be  darker  than  any  other  object 
in  the  scene.  In  Rembrandt's  portraits  the  head  is  often 
covered  with  a  black  velvet  cap,  to  increase,  by  contrast,  the 
brilliancy  of  the  face;  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  other 
parts  are,  although  dark,  in  half-light  in  comparison.  This 
principle  is  carried  out  to  a  great  extent  in  the  pictures  of 
Adam-Salomon,  where  the  dark  velvet  so  often  introduced 
plays  a  most  important  part  in  the  economy  of  light  and 
shade. 

Light  and  shade  vary  so  much  with  the  subject  to  be  rep- 
resented, that  they  can  scarcely  be  reduced  to  anything  like 
a  system.    But  there  are  a  few  general  arrangements  which 


126  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

the  photographer  would  find  valuable  to  have  always  before 
him,  and  they  are  only,  as  it  were,  duplicates  of  the  laws  that 
govern  composition. 

In  chiaro-oscuro,  as  in  the  composition  of  lines,  the  centre  is 
the  weakest  part  of  the  picture.  Neither  the  principal  object 
nor  the  chief  light  should  be  situated  in  that  place  where 
lines  drawn  from  the  opposite  corner  would  intersect.  A 
position  either  immediately  above,  below,  or  at  the  side  of 
this  point  would  better  satisfy  the  requirements  of  pictorial 
effect.  In  a  portrait,  the  head,  which  is  the  principal  object 
and  light,  would  be  above  this  position  in  a  more  or  less  de- 
gree, according  to  the  stature  of  the  individual. 

When  the  light  spreads  through  the  picture,  it  should  never 
be  allowed  to  form  either  a  horizontal  or  vertical  line.  This 
refers  to  the  general  mass  of  light.  The  horizontal  bars  of 
light  seen  at  twilight  are  often  very  beautiful,  and  their 
formal  straightness  gives  a  grandeur  and  a  sentiment  of  re- 
pose to  be  produced  in  no  other  way.  This  rule,  in  other 
words,  would  run  thus :  The  centre  of  the  picture  should  not 
be  light,  with  the  two  sides  dark,  or  with  the  top  and  bottom 
only  dark.  When  the  light  falls  or  is  spread  diagonally,  it 
is  more  picturesque  than  when  it  is  arranged  horizontally  or 
vertically.    The  same  rule  would,  of  course,  apply  to  shadow. 

There  must  be  unity  of  effect  in  the  light  and  shade  as 
well  as  in  the  composition.  Chiaro-oscuro  will  often  "  pull  a 
picture  together  "  when  the  composition  is  scattered.  Where 
there  is  too  great  a  repetition  of  forms,  light  or  shade  will  break 
them  up  or  mass  them  together.  Chiaro-oscuro  should  produce 
that  effect  which  is  produced  upon  the  retina  when  the  eye  is 
intently  fixed  upon  an  object,  and  is  not  permitted  to  wander, 
and  which,  some  artists  maintain,  should  be  obtained  by  sacri- 
ficing the  inferior  parts  of  the  picture  to  the  principal  part. 
This  theory,  that  the  details  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  pic- 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  127 

ture  must  be  out  of  focus,  will  not  bear  the  light  of  argument. 
The  theory  is,  that  the  eye  sees  only  one  point  in  perfect 
focus  at  the  same  time,  and  that  there  is  something  unpleas- 
ant and  imperfect,  even  to  the  least  experienced  eye,  in  a 
picture  where  everything  is  made  out — the  drapery,  acces- 
sories, etc.,  all  minutely  represented  with  the  same  finish  as 
the  head.  This  is  a  fallacy  that  has  led  many  clever  painters 
astray.  It  is  true  that  the  eye,  theoretically,  only  sees  one 
point  at  a  time,  but  the  eye  alters  its  focus  so  instantaneously 
that  practically  it  sees  one  part  almost  as  well  as  another ; 
and  the  same  rules  should  apply  to  the  picture  as  to  nature. 
Notwithstanding  that  pictures  are  usually  smaller  than  nature, 
if  the  eye  is  fixed  on  the  chief  feature,  the  other  parts,  how- 
ever highly  finished,  will  naturally  go  out  of  focus  as  much 
as  they  do  in  nature,  which,  as  I  have  already  explained, 
owing  to  the  instantaneous  alteration  of  focus  in  the  eye,  is 
not  much.  Here  is  an  illustration.  As  I  write,  I  am  looking 
through  a  window ;  a  few  feet  beyond  the  window  is  the  rail- 
ing of  a  balcony ;  beyond  a  terraced  garden ;  beyond  that  a 
grove  of  trees;  yet  further  a  church- tower ;  and  in  the  dis- 
tance some  hills  veiled  in  the  blue  mist.  All  this  is  seen 
through  an  aperture  two  feet  square ;  and,  as  I  look  at  it,  the 
focus  of  the  eye  changes  so  rapidly  that  I  can  detect  no  want 
of  definition — such  definition  as  we  get  in  a  photograph — 
anywhere.    The  only  indistinct  part  is  the  distant  hill. 

But  there  is  no  reason  why  this  scene,  if  represented  in  a 
picture,  should  be  a  mass  of  mere  detail.  Sharp,  as  we  call 
it  in  photography,  it  may  be  all  over,  but,  if  it  is  to  have 
pictorial  effect,  it  must  be  massed;  the  church-tower,  which  is 
the  principal  object,  must  come  out  into  the  strongest  relief, 
the  rest  must  be  subordinate  ;  and  thus  we  should  obtain  that 
unity  which  is  necessary  to  pictorial  effect.  The  picture  is 
felt  to  be  true  and  natural  when  the  eye  is  at  once  led  to 
dwell  on  the  chief  group  or  the  principal  object.    By  insensi- 


128  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ble  degrees,  the  painter  who  is  a  master  of  his  art  keeps 
down  the  parts  which  interfere  with  the  centre  of  attraction — 

"  All  things  seem  only  one 
In  the  universal  sun." 

And  so,  after  a  fashion,  it  should  be  in  the  picture  produced 
by  his  light. 

Unity  of  light  and  shade,  as  I  have  just  stated,  is  impera- 
tive ;  but  there  is  another  quality  which  at  a  first  glance  would 
appear  to  be  antagonistic  to  unity,  but  which  really  aids  it. 
In  a  former  chapter,  I  dwelt  at  some  length  on  the  necessity 
of  repetition  in  lines  and  forms ;  the  same  rule,  only  in  a 
stronger  degree,  applies  to  chiaro-oscuro.  No  light  in  a  pic- 
ture should  be  allowed  to  be  single  or  isolated,  but  should  be 
repeated  or  echoed,  not  in  its  full  quantity  or  force  —  there 
must  be  no  rival  near  the  throne — but  in  an  inferior  degree. 
The  strength  of  Rembrandt,  strange  as  the  statement  may  ap- 
pear, was  not  so  much  in  his  great  contrast  of  black  and  white, 
as  in  the  manner  he  harmonized  and  mellowed  the  violence 
of  either  by  echoes  and  faint  repetition  throughout  the  pic- 
ture. It  is  the  repeated  but  fainter  echoes  of  the  chief  light 
that  harmonize  and  bring  together  the  various  parts  of  a  pic- 
ture into  the  unity  of  a  perfect  whole.  The  repetition  of  the 
air,  varied  and  less  pronounced  in  a  piece  of  music,  produces 
a  sympathy  and  connection  of  thought  throughout.  The 
effect  is  analogous  to  that  of  metaphor  or  simile  in  literature :  | 
a  repetition  must  not  be  a  symmetrical  likeness  of  its  origi- 
nal, but  should  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  family.  It  must 
avoid  the  symmetry  of  detail,  but  produce  a  sort  of  wholesale 
symmetry.  What  is  the  secret  of  the  delight  we  take  in  re- 
flections, if  it  is  not  similar  to  that  we  take  in  hearing  the 
repetition  of  a  sound,  or  in  seeing  the  echoed  sympathy  of 
one  part  of  a  picture  with  another  ?  To  many,  the  reflection 
is  more  beautiful  than  the  reality. 


PICTORIAL   EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


129 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

CHTARO-OSCURO.  "  VARIOUS    ARRANGEMENTS    OF    LIGHT  AND 

SHADE. 

The  light  and  shade  of  a  landscape  cannot  be  materially 
altered  by  the  photographer,  nor  is  it  necessary  that  he  should 
alter  it;  but  the  chiaro-osctiro  of  nature  is  so  continually 
changing,  that  he  may  select  the  effect  that  gives  the  most 
pleasure  to  the  educated  eye.  A  few  sketches  of  the  arrange- 
ments of  light  and  dark  as  employed  by  the  best  artists  may 
assist  him  in  making  his  selection. 

It  is  desirable  that  all  lights  should  have  a  focus,  just  as 
light  falling  on  a  globe  is  more  brilliant  on  one  small  spot 


Fig.  24. 

than  on  any  other  part ;  and  all  lights  in  a  picture  should  be 
treated  as  parts  of  a  whole,  and  subordinated  in  various  degrees 
to  the  principal  light.  Fig.  24  represents  a  simple  form  of 
chiaro-oscuro  much  used  by  many  artists.    In  this  arrange- 

9 


130  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ment  the  highest  light  is  opposed  by  the  darkest  dark,  and 
the  light  fades  away  in  every  gradation  of  middle  tones.  The 
two  extremes  assist  each  other  by  contrast,  and  produce  a 
most  forcible  and  startling  effect,  with  great  breadth.  It  will 
be  found  in  the  works  of  Bonington,  Collins,  Cuyp,  Both, 
and  many  other  painters  of  coast  and  flat  scenery,  to  which 
it  is  well  adapted.  Many  admirable  examples — especially  by 
Collins — may  be  seen  in  the  National  Gallery.  The  reverse 
of  this,  in  which  dark  takes  the  place  of  light,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  This  effect  may  often  be  noticed  in  moorland 
scenery  or  in  a  flat  country,  when  the  clouds  graduate  upwards 
from  a  dark  horizon.  The  shadow  of  a  cloud  may  be  thrown 
over  the  distance,  while  the  foreground  may  be  illuminated 
by  intense  sunlight ;  or  the  effect  may  be  caused  by  belts  of 


Fig.  25. 


trees.  However  produced,  the  effect  is  very  beautiful,  and  is 
one  that,  now  greater  attention  is  paid  to  passing  effects  and 
the  sky,  may  be  easily  produced  in  photography.  In  this 
arrangement  a  mass  of  extreme  dark  in  the  light  part  of  the 
foreground  will  be  found  invaluable ;  or  still  better,  a  figure 
or  other  object  in  which  is  combined  the  extremes  of  black 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  131 


and  white.  This  will  be  found  to  throw  the  rest  of  the  picture 
— consisting  of  gradations  short  of  black  and  white — into 
harmony,  by  creating  a  focus,  as  it  were,  more  brilliant  than, 


Fig.  26. 


and  overmastering,  the  other  lights  and  darks.  Turner's 
"  Temeraire  "  is  an  example  of  this  form  of  composition. 

In  Fig.  26  the  darkest  shade  is  relieved  by  a  light  object, 
and  the  highest  light  by  the  principal  spot  of  dark.  Burnet, 
in  writing  of  a  similar  design,  says:  "If  a  diagonal  line  be 
drawn  through  the  picture,  and  the  extreme  dark  and  extreme 
light  be  placed  at  opposite  sides,  we  must,  of  necessity,  have 
the  greatest  breadth  of  effect.  If  a  balance  or  union  between 
the  two  sides  be  wished,  there  is  no  other  way  but  by  borrow- 
ing a  portion  of  the  one  and  exchanging  it  for  a  portion  of 
the  opposite ;  and  not  only  may  this  practice  be  made  use  of 
for  the  harmony  of  the  whole,  but  the  light  and  the  shade  will 
be  thus  rendered  more  intense  by  the  force  of  opposition. 
Now,  whether  the  dark  which  is  carried  to  the  light  side  bft 
very  small  or  very  large,  and  vice  versa,  we  have  the  ground- 
work of  some  of  the  most  powerful  and  most  natural  effects. 
If  the  light  is  placed  near  the  horizon  —  as  in  evening  skies, 


132  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

for  example,  such  as  it  frequently  is  in  Cuyp — we  see  it  rising 
upward  until  lost  in  middle  tint  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pic- 
ture, and  the  middle  tint  descending  into  shadow  by  means 
of  trees,  figures,  etc.,  thus  making  a  sweep  round  the  picture, 
and  thereby  affording  the  greatest  opportunity  for  breadth  of 
effect.  If  the  two  extreme  points  are  connected  by  interme- 
diate figures,  so  as  to  form  but  one  group,  we  have  the  greatest 
firmness,  as  the  light  part  of  the  group  will  be  relieved  by  a 
dark  ground,  and  the  dark  part  of  the  group  by  a  light  ground ; 
if  we  pursue  the  contrary  practice,  and  place  the  dark  part  of 
the  group  on  the  dark  ground,  we  have  more  breadth  and  soft- 
ness of  effect.  There  is  no  want  of  examples  in  nature  or  in 
pictures  to  warrant  our  following  either  mode. ' ' 

It  is,  perhaps,  necessary  to  state  that  the  illustrations  are 
purposely  exaggerated,  to  show  the  effect  more  clearly ;  but 
the  truth  of  nature  should  never  be  violated  to  produce  an 
effect.  Photography  gives  facilities  for  approaching  suffi- 
ciently near  to  the  rules"  of  art  without  that.  Midnight  shad- 
ows should  never  be  mixed  with  the  light  of  day,  even  in 
painting,  although  it  has  been  managed  with  great  effect  by 
some  great  masters  of  the  art — Tintoretto  and  Carravaggio,  for 
instance.  Leslie,  writing  on  the  subject  of  exaggerated  shad- 
ows, as  shown  in  the  pictures  of  these  masters,  says:  "This 
is  the  boldest  fiction  of  chiaro-oscuro,  but  it  is  generally  man- 
aged by  the  painters  I  have  mentioned  with  such  address  that 
it  silences  criticism,  and  forces  us  to  admire,  whether  we  can 
approve  or  not.  All  that  can  be  said  in  its  defence  is,  that 
the  elements  of  such  a  combination  are  from  nature,  though 
united  as  nature  does  not  unite  them.  Conventionalities  like 
this  must  be  forgiven  to  genius,  but  I  do  not  think  they  are 
to  be  recommended  to  imitation ;  and  in  saying  so,  I  have  no 
fear  of  repressing  the  daring  of  genius,  for  genius — such  as  the 
men  I  have  mentioned  possessed — will  always  have  its  own 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


133 


way.  Great  ability  may,  however,  exist  short  of  theirs  ;  and 
I  would  gladly  repress  all  who  possess  it  from  attempting 
things  which  the  success  even  of  greater  painters  cannot  en- 
tirely sanction.  And  there  is  much  need  of  this  caution, 
because  it  is  far  more  easy  to  imitate  exaggeration  of  effect 
than  to  make  simple  truth  so  impressive  as  it  has  been  made 
by  Paul  Veronese,  by  Claude,  and  by  the  best  painters  of  the 
Dutch  and  Flemish  schools,  including  Rembrandt,  when  he 
pleased  to  be  included. 

Photographers,  therefore,  must  never  rely  on  the  excuse 
for  departing  from  nature,  "Painters  did  it  thus."  They 
must  not  defy,  but  court  criticism — leaving  themselves  at 
liberty  to  reject  it  if  it  is  obviously  wrong — and  they  must 
rely  on  nature  for  success.  Photographers  even  of  "  daring 
genius ' '  cannot  afford  to  depart  from  nature,  as  these  old 
painters  did,  partly  because  nature  is  a  sure  guide,  and  partly 
because  it  has  not  yet  been  settled  what  "  daring  genius  " — 
as  far  as  applies  to  photography — really  is. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

CHIARO-OSCURO.  "VARIOUS    ARRANGEMENTS   OF    LIGHT  AND 

shade.  ' ' — {continued. ) 

An  arrangement  of  light  and  shade  not  so  much  regarded 
now  as  a  strict  rule,  called  "the  three  lights,"  at  one  time 
was  considered  to  be  indispensable  to  a  good  picture,  and  is, 
indeed,  a  very  pleasing  effect  of  chiaro-oscuro,  including  in 
itself  every  element  of  success — unity,  variety,  and  repetition. 
It  was  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  who  first  enunciated  this  precept : 
"The  same  rules  which  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the 


134  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

regulation  of  groups  of  figures  must  be  observed  in  regard  to 
the  grouping  of  lights;  that  there  shall  be  a  superiority  of 
one  over  the  rest ;  that  they  shall  be  separated  and  varied  in 
their  shapes,  and  that  there  should  be  at  least  three  lights :  I 
the  secondary  lights  ought  to  be  of  nearly  equal  brightness, 
though  not  of  equal  magnitude,  with  the  principal." 

The  sketch  (Fig.  27)  will  give  some  idea  of  the  arrange- 
ment. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  three  lights  are  placed  at  unequal 


Fig.  27. 

distances  from  each  other,  and  form  an  irregular  triangle. 
The  chief  light — that  in  the  sky — is  brighter  and  broader 
than  the  others ;  it  is  repeated  by  the  secondary  light  on  the  j 
cliff,  and  carried  off  by  the  light  reflected  in  the  water  on  the 
left  hand. 

The  most  beautiful  effects  are  often  produced  with  the 
simplest  materials;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  persuade  photog- 
raphers, who  have  such  ample  means  of  rendering  detail, 
and  whose  pictures  are  as  easily  and  as  highly  finished  if  they 
are  full  of  subject  as  if  they  had  very  little  in  them,  to  be 
content  with  sufficient  material  for  pictorial  effect.  With 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  135 

painters  all  the  force  of  the  palette  and  all  the  skill  of  the 
artist  are  frequently  employed  by  such  simple  materials  as  a 
straight  and  low  horizon  meeting  the  sky.  On  such  subjects 
the  most  skilful  resources  of  the  art  are  necessary,  and  enable 


Fig.  28. 


the  artist  to  show  his  strength.  How  very  seldom  is  a  pho- 
tographer content  to  keep  his  horizon  low,  and  depend  on 
the  sky  for  effect !  Fig.  28  is  from  a  photograph  in  which 
this  arrangement  has  been  observed,  and  in  which  the  view, 
without  being  too  much  suppressed  or  neglected,  has  been 
subordinated  with  great  advantage  to  the  general  effect.  A 
proper  union  and  sympathy  between  the  parts  of  the  picture 
have  been  kept  up  by  means  of  the  broad  mass  of  light  which 
occurs  in  the  sky,  and  is  repeated  on  the  ground.  This  illus- 
tration also  shows  the  extreme  value  of  carefully  chosen  and 
placed  figures  in  a  landscape.  The  one  figure  being  white 
and  the  other  black,  collects  the  scattered  lights  and  shades 
in  the  picture,  and  reduces  them  to  proper  subordination. 
The  use  of  extreme  black  and  white  in  small  quantity  and  in 
juxtaposition  is  also  exemplified  in  Fig.  29. 
A  method  pursued  by  Turner,  and  followed  since  by  many 


136  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

artists,  is  most  effective.  Instead  of  relying  on  a  small  por- 
tion of  light  surrounded  by  large  masses  of  dark,  as  Rem- 


Fig.  29. 


brandt  did,  Turner  understood  and  exemplified  in  many  of 
his  best  works  the  extreme  value  of  small  masses  of  dark  set 
in  a  border  of  light,  but  never  unsupported  by  other  spots  of 
dark.  This  was  often  obtained  by  rearing  a  dark  tree  against 
a  light  sky,  balanced  by  dark  figures  in  the  foreground,  which  j 
is  usually  light ;  between  the  foreground  and  the  distance  is 
generally  a  mass  of  shade  uniting  the  two.  The  illustration 
(Fig.  29)  is  constructed  on  his  "  View  of  Orvieto,"  and  is 
one  of  the  many  pictures  painted  by  Turner  that  shows  the 
principle  clearly.  This  was  one  of  the  pictures  so  treasured 
up  by  the  artist,  in  order  that  he  might  leave  them  to  the 
nation,  that  no  money  could  buy  them.  The  subject  is  com- 
posed of  a  bold  sweep  of  landscape,  to  the  left  of  which  rise 
a  tree  and  a  dark  mass  of  foliage ;  in  the  foreground,  which 
is  varied  with  that  minute  subdivision  of  lights  and  darks 
which  make  this  artist's  effects  (like  photography,  when 
rightly  understood)  so  elaborate  and  yet  so  broad,  the  dark 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  137 

parts  of  the  dresses  of  two  women,  who  are  washing  at  a 
classic  fountain,  repeat  and  support  the  dark  tone  of  the 
tree;  the  dark  vine-leaves,  brought  out  prominently  on  the 
light  masonry,  also  perform  the  same  office,  and  extend  the 
shadow  to  the  extreme  right.  The  only  bits  of  pure  white  in 
the  original  are  on  the  woman's  dress  in  connection  with  ex- 
treme dark  (see  last  chapter),  and  the  piece  of  paper  on  the 
lute.  (It  is  impossible  to  show  these  details  clearly  in  a  small 
woodcut.)  These  minute  bits  of  pure  white  are  placed  with 
a  definite  purpose  and  with  extreme  art,  and  help  to  bring 
forward  the  foreground,  and  throw  back  the  distance.  In  the 
distance,  on  a  rocky  eminence,  stands  the  town  of  Orvieto, 
backed  by  mountains,  which  distance  is  treated  with  great 
tenderness  and  delicacy.  The  general  arrangement  of  masses 
will  be  found  somewhat  similar  to  that  described  in  Chapter 
XXVI.,  Fig.  25. 

Few  photographs  have  been  taken  uniting  extreme  force  in 
the  foreground  with  delicate  and  tender  distances  and  skies. 
There  is  no  reason,  save  that  of  a  disinclination  to  take  much 
trouble  over  such  a  simple  thing  as  a  photograph,  why  they 
should  not  be  done.  If  photographers  would  say  to  them- 
selves, "  This  scene  is  as  well  worthy  of  my  undivided  atten- 
tion and  of  all  my  skill  as  it  would  be  that  of  a  painter  who 
would  not  hesitate  to  spend  some  weeks  in  painting  it,"  they 
would  probably  produce  better  results.  I  have  never  yet  been 
able  to  see  why  a  photograph  should  be  confined  to  one  ex- 
posure for  foreground  and  distance,  any  more  than  it  should 
be  considered  legitimate  that  an  etching  should  have  one 
biting  only.  In  etching,  the  artist  exposes  his  plate  to  the 
acid  a  longer  time  and  bites  deeper  for  the  shadows  than  for 
the  lights;  if  he  did  not,  he  would  get  no  variety  of  light  and 
shade,  and  his  work  would  be  thin  and  weak.  In  photo- 
graphing such  a  view  as  the  one  of  Turner's  we  have  taken 


138  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

for  illustration,  I  can  see  no  reason  why  the  foreground 
should  not  be  obtained  in  one  negative,  giving  sufficient  ex- 
posure to  bring  out  the  necessary  detail  in  the  shadows ;  and 
the  distance  and  sky  on  one  or  more  negatives,  suiting  the 
exposure  to  the  effect  required.  The  only  technical  objection 
would  be,  that  it  would  require  skill  in  the  printing,  which, 
in  the  eyes  of  many  photographers,  would  be  an  immense  ad- 
vantage, the  "  fatal,  facility  "  of  the  art  for  producing  rubbish 
being  the  great  cause  why  photography  as  an  art  has  not  ad- 
vanced further  than  it  has  done. 

Difficulties  in  art  are  necessary  to  its  existence.  If  there 
was  nothing  to  overcome,  there  would  be  no  incentive  to  ex- 
ertion, and  art  would  soon  become  a  mechanical  trade.  Opie 
was  always  of  opinion  that  the  internal  difficulties  of  painting 
were  its  very  best  friends,  and,  in  one  of  his  discourses  at  the 
Academy,  related  the  following  apposite  anecdote  to  illustrate 
his  statement :  "  Two  highwaymen  (says  a  certain  author), 
passing  once  by  a  gibbet,  one  of  them,  with  an  ill-boding 
sigh,  exclaimed,  '  What  a  fine  profession  ours  would  be  if  . 
there  were  no  gibbets  ! '  '  Oh,  you  blockhead,'  says  the  other, 
'  how  much  you  are  mistaken  !  Gibbets  are  the  making  of  us  ; 
for  if  there  had  been  no  gibbets,  every  one  would  be  a  high- 
wayman ! '  " 


I 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN   PHOTOGRAPHY.  139 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

CHIARO-OSCURO.  "  BREADTH." 

Whatever  arrangement  or  system  of  chiaro-oscuro  is  em- 
ployed in  a  picture,  it  must  have  breadth  of  effect,  without 
which  the  eye  will  never  rest  upon  it  with  pleasure.  Just  as 
a  degree  of  irritation  to  the  touch  arises  from  uneven  surfaces, 
so  all  lights  and  shades  which  are  interrupted  and  scattered 
are  more  irritating  to  the  eye  than  those  which  are  broad  and 
continuous.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  this,  that  extreme 
contrast  of  light  and  shade  in  the  proper  quantity,  and  in  the 
right  place,  is  not  agreeable,  for  upon  contrast  and  opposition, 
as  I.  have  already  shown,  much  of  pictorial  effect  depends ; 
but  it  is  the  flickering  lights  and  perpetually  shifting  glare  of 
ill-managed  chiaro-oscuro  that  keep  the  eye  in  a  state  of  con- 
stant irritation,  and  distract  the  attention  from  the  subject  of 
the  picture.  The  effect  to  be  avoided  is  that  which  Milton 
described  before  his  weak  and  easily-affected  eyes  had  lost 
their  light,  when  he  wrote — 

"  Hide  me  from  day's  garish  eye, 
When  the  sun  begins  to  fling 
His  flaring  beams." 

In  an  endeavor  to  explain  the  cause  of  the  beautiful  effect 
of  breadth  as  seen  in  twilight,  an  admirable  writer  says  :  "It 
may,  perhaps,  be  said  that  the  imagination,  from  a  few  imper- 
fect hints,  often  forms  beauties  which  have  no  existence,  and 
that  indifference  may  naturally  arise  from  those  phantoms  not 
being  realized.    I  am  far  from  denying  the  power  of  partial 


140  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

concealment  and  obscurity  on  the  imagination,  but  in  these 
cases  the  set  of  objects  when  seen  by  twilight  is  beautiful  as 
a  picture,  and  would  appear  highly  so  if  exactly  represented 
on  the  canvas;  but  in  full  daylight,  the  sun,  as  it  were,  de- 
compounds what  had  been  so  happily  mixed  together,  and 
separates  a  striking  whole  into  detached  unimpressive  parts." 

It  is  always  of  service  to  the  artist  to  examine  the  same 
scenes  at  different  times  of  the  day,  and  under  different  ef- 
fects. He  then  has  an  opportunity  of  speculating  on  the 
cause  of  the  beautiful  appearance  at  one  time,  and  of  the 
commonplace  look  most  scenes  have  at  other  times. 

Objects  which,  in  themselves,  possess  no  interest,  are  fre- 
quently made  to  delight  the  eye,  from  their  being  productive 
of  breadth.  This  cause  seems  to  account  for  the  pleasure  we 
receive  from  many  massive,  heavy  objects,  which,  without  this 
charm,  and  considered  singly,  are  positively  ugly.  Some 
pictures,  though  bad  in  every  other  respect,  but  possessed  of 
breadth,  attract  and  arrest  the  attention  of  the  cultivated  eye  ; 
while  others,  admirable  in  detail  and  color,  but  m  which  the 
harmonizing  principle  is  wanting,  will  often  be  passed  over  as 
uninteresting.  But  breadth  must  not  be  carried  out  to  effemi- 
nacy; the  most  healthy  system  requires  a  tonic  sometimes, 
and  too  much  sweetness  and  breadth  become  sickly.  Illus- 
trations of  pictorial  art  are  often  to  be  derived  from  music. 
It  is  so  here.  The  first  effect  of  mere  breadth  of  light  and 
shadow  is  to  the  eye  that  which  mere  harmony  is  to  the  ear : 
both  produce  a  pleasing  repose,  which,  if  not  relieved,  be- 
comes dull  and  wearisome.  The  eye  requires  to  be  awakened 
occasionally ;  for  it  must  be  remembered,  however  delightful 
repose  is,  repose  leads  to  sleep,  and  sleep  to  death.  But  as 
harmony  and  design  must  be  preserved  in  the  wildest  music, 
so  must  breadth  be  observed  in  the  most  complicated  scenes. 

The  illustration  to  this  chapter,  the  original  of  which  is  a 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOCxRAPHY.  141 


fine  example  of  breadth  of  effect,  is  taken  from  Turner's 
"  Liber  Studiorum, "  and  was  used  by  Mr.  Lake  Price  in  his 


Fig.  30. 


articles  on  a  similar  subject  to  the  present  one  in  the  Photo- 
graphic News  some  years  ago.  Its  excellence  as  an  example 
of  breadth  must  be  my  excuse  for  reproducing  it.  Mr.  Lake 
Price  observes,  in  reference  to  it :  '/  The  fine  subject  of  '  Nor- 
ham  Castle'  is  a  masterly  example  of  this  management 
(breadth  of  effect).  Here  the  dark  mass  of  the  castle  occu- 
%  pies  the  centre  of  the  picture,  and  is  the  focus  of  shadow, 
diminishing  thence  to  the  edges  of  the  subject ;  the  principal 
light  oi  the  sky  being  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the 
strong  dark,  the  qualities  of  increased  brilliancy  and  great 
breadth  are  simultaneously  attained.  The  beautiful  and  poetic 
effect  of  this  subject  should  animate  some  of  our  landscape 
photographers  to  endeavor  to  emulate  similar  effects  from 


142  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

nature.  The  student  will  gain  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
capabilities  of  chiaro-oscuro,  in  its  application  to  landscape, 
by  repeated  and  careful  examination  of  the  broad,  varied,  and 
masterly  effects  to  be  seen  in  Turner's  1  Liber  Studiorum,' 
which  is  in  itself  a  compendium  of  light  and  shade  applied  to 
landscape  composition." 

Photographs  of  close  views  of  trees  are  seldom  satisfactory, 
the  chief  reason  being  that  they  require  breadth  of  light  and 
shade,  without  which  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  various 
trees  appear  to  mingle  together,  and  produce  flatness  and  con- 
fusion. In  most  cases,  this  may  be  avoided  by  a  judicious 
selection  of  the  aspect  or  time  of  day  on  which  such  views  are 
taken. 

Painters  have  found  it  difficult  to  unite  breadth  with  detail, 
but  it  has  been  attained,  in  the  works  of  some  great  masters, 
in  great  perfection,  showing  that  breadth  is  not  inimical  to 
finish,  as  insisted  on  by  some  writers  and  painters.  The 
microscopically  finished  works  of  Gerard  Dow  and  Van  Eyck 
are  never  wanting  in  breadth,  and  the  well-known  pictures  of 
Meissonier,  highly  elaborate  as  they  are,  are  remarkable  for 
the  very  qualities  which  it  has  been  supposed  high  finish  would 
destroy.  But  the  photographer  is  not  so  much  troubled  as 
the  painter  with  this  fear  of  detail  destroying  breadth.  The 
utmost  extreme  of  definition  is  quite  compatible  with  the  most 
tender  atmospheric  gradations.  The  detail  of  nature  need 
never  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  representing  atmosphere. 
If  definition  and  atmosphere  exist  together  in  the  subject  to 
be  photographed,  they  should  appear  in  the  picture,  or  some- 
thing is  wrong  :  either  the  chemicals  are  out  of  order,  the  ex- 
posure is  not  well  timed,  the  development  or  intensification 
ill-judged,  or  the  photographer  has  attempted  to  do  on  one  plate 
that  to  which  he  should  have  devoted  two  or  three  negatives, 
with  combination  printing. 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  143 


Nothing,  perhaps,  is  more  pleasing  or  more  flattering  to  the 
vanity  and  indolence  of  artistic  mankind  than  the  being  able 
to  produce  an  agreeable  general  effect  with  little  labor  and  less 
study;  this  they  call  "  artistry,"  and  think  clever;  but  this 
is  not  the  intention  of  painting,  which  should  represent  or 
suggest  nature,  and  not  an  abstract  idea  of  it.  Mere  sketches 
of  breadth  no  more  represent  nature  than  do  the  "  tone  "  pic- 
tures of  some  modern  artists — in  which  the  changes  are  rung 
on  all  the  gradations,  from  the  very  limited  scale  of  lavender 
to  white  —  represent  color.  These  pictures,  in  which  the 
painters  probably  endeavor  to  "  snatch  a  grace  beyond  the 
reach  of  art,"  are  very  clever  as  far  as  they  go,  but  they,  like 
sketches  that  show  only  breadth,  do  not  go  beyond  A  or  B  in 
the  alphabet  of  art. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

CHIARO-OSCURO.  "  PORTRAITURE  "  "  THE  STUDIO." 

In  photographic  portraiture  the  chiaro-oscuro  is  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  under  the  control  of  the  artist ;  there  is, 
therefore,  not  so  much  excuse  for  imperfect  and  faulty  light- 
ing as  there  is  in  landscape  photography. 

The  tendency  of  the  lighting  in  photographic  portraiture 
has  been  to  harsh  patches  of  black  and  white,  or  to  miserable 
softness,  full,  it  is  true,  of  delicacy  and  half-tone,  but  insipid, 
and  without  character.  Neither  of  these  varieties  possesses 
what  could  be  strictly  called  chiaro-oscuro,  which  term  im- 
plies some  notion  of  the  arrangement  and  management  of 
light  and  shade.  There  is  something  more  in  light  and  shade 
than  what  is  shown  in  the  modelling  of  a  face.  It  is  this 
subject  that  we  will  at  present  consider. 


144  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  object  to  be  attained  in  lighting  a  head,  considered  as 
a  head  only,  without  reference  to  the  general  effect  of  the 
picture,  is  roundness,  and  a  certain  degree  of  relief;  not  the 
relief  attained  by  the  stereoscope,  but  that  degree  of  projec- 
tion which  is  seen  in  all  good  pictures.  How  to  obtain  this 
relief  shall  be  our  next  consideration.  It  will  first  be  neces- 
sary to  say  a  few  words  on  the  studio  in  which  the  portrait  is 
produced.  The  general  details  of  a  studio  have  been  so  often 
explained,  that  for  my  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  in  these  remarks  I  refer  to  a  ridge-roof  studio,  one  side 
(the  south)  of  which,  up  to  the  ridge,  is  opaque,  the  other 
half  glass  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  floor.  I  make  no  ref- 
erence to  tunnels,  in  which  I  do  not  believe,  and  which  are 
only  available  in  the  hands  of  men  who  will  make  good  pic- 
tures in  spite  of,  and  not  because  of,  the  difficulties  with  which 
they  have  to  contend. 

The  glass  side  of  the  roof  may  be  blocked  up  permanently 
for  five  feet  from  each  end ;  the  remaining  space  of  glass 
should  be  divided  into  four  widths,  covered  with  white  blinds 
on  spring  rollers,  pulling  down  from  the  top.  I  do  not  think 
blue  or  black  blinds  in  addition  of  any  consequence :  they 
only  produce  complication  and  disorder.  The  side,  also,  if 
the  studio  be  so  situated  that  it  receive  light  through  it  direct 
from  the  sky,  should  have  corresponding  blinds ;  but  if  the 
light  reflected  from  buildings  only  be  admitted,  then  the 
blinds  are  not  necessary,  this  kind  of  light  being  very  weak 
and  ineffective  in  comparison  with  that  from  the  sky. 

We  will  suppose  the  south  wall  to  be  papered,  or  colored 
with  a  middle  tint  of  a  gray  or  greenish-gray  color ;  the 
studio  will  then  be  ready  for  making  experiments  in  light  and 
shade  on  the  face.  To  assist  further  description,  I  give  a 
plan  of  the  roof,  premising  that  the  size  of  the  floor  is  twenty- 
eight  feet  by  fourteen  feet. 


I 

PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  145 

Place  a  sitter  in  the  usual  position,  at  the  end  of  the  studio, 
to  the  right  of  the  plan ;  or,  perhaps,  a  marble  bust  or 
plaster  cast  will  be  better,  because  you  can  look  it  more 


Fig.  31. 


steadily  in  the  face,  and  it  will  not  tire  with  your  prolonged 
study  and  observation.  Turn  the  face  to  the  light,  and  let  all 
the  blinds  be  up,  so  that  it  may  fall  full  upon  it.  The  con- 
sequence will  be  that  the  features  will  appear  faint  and  indis- 
tinct, without  shadow.  If  the  head  be  now  turned  away 
from  the  light  until  it  present  a  three-quarter  view  to  an  ob- 
server standing  where  the  camera  is  usually  placed,  the  off-side 
of  the  face  will  appear  in  agreeable  shadow,  and  the  nose  and 
other  features  will  stand  out  in  relief.  But  the  best  effect  is 
not  yet  obtained.  Although  the  light  is  broad,  and  relief  is 
got,  the  light  is  too  broad  and  flat,  and  there  is  not  sufficient 
subtlety  or  delicacy  in  the  gradations,  in  the  lights,  and  not 
enough  transparency  in  the  shadows;  the  photograph  would 
consequently  have  a  harsh,  black-and-white  effect.  If  all  the 
white  blinds  are  drawn  down  about  one-third  of  the  roof 
space,  the  shadowed  side  of  the  face  will  appear  softer  and 
more  in  harmony  with  the  light.  We  have  now  to  produce 
the  greatest  amount  of  gradations  in  the  lights.  This  is  done 
by  drawing  down  the  two  curtains  (i  and  2)  farthest  from  the 
sitter.  It  will  now  be  found  that  the  shining  lights  down 
the  nose,  on  the  forehead,  and  other  parts,  are  produced  to 

10 


146  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

perfection,  and  that  all  gradations  from  opacity  to  bare  glass, 
to  speak  photographically,  are  to  be  seen  on  the  bust,  and  that 
the  whole  face  receives  its  proper  protection  and  relief. 

It  will  be  thought  by  some  that  to  exclude  light  in  the 
manner  described  will  prolong  exposure,  but  experience 
teaches  that  the  truth  lies  the  other  way.  A  properly  lighted 
head  does  not  take  a  longer  exposure  than  one  on  which  the 
fullest  light  attainable  in  the  studio  is  thrown,  and  the  results 
are  not  to  be  compared. 

If  it  be  considered  desirable  to  take  the  head  more  inclin- 
ing to  profile,  or  if  the  sitter  have  features  that  project  very 
considerably,  the  shadowed  side  will  be  found  to  be  too  dark. 
In  this  case  reflectors  are  sometimes  employed.  This  I  think 
an  objectionable  proceeding.  Any  reflection  giving  more 
light  than  the  natural  reflection  from  the  gray  wall  I  have 
described  will  produce  a  second  spark  of  light  in  the  eye, 
which  has  a  very  disagreeable  effect.  A  much  better  method  is 
to  pull  down  blind  No.  4,  the  one  nearest  the  sitter,  and  draw 
up  Nos.  1  and  2 ;  if  there  should  still  be  too  much  shade  on 
one  side  of  the  face,  then  the  desired  effect  may  be  obtained 
by  working  diagonally  across  the  studio,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

In  this  arrangement  the  background  (a)  is  placed  aslant; 


9 


Fig.  32. 

the  sitter  (b)  is  seen  from  the  camera  (c)  in  a  fuller  light,  but 
still  with  a  three-quarter  view ;  the  shadows  of  the  nose  will 
be  stronger,  but  confined  to  a  less  space,  and  the  shadowed 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


147 


side  of  the  face  will  be  lighter.  This  arrangement  is  also 
very  suitable  for  an  exact  profile,  or  one  showing  a  glimpse 
of  the  off  eye. 

In  a  photograph  of  a  well-lighted  head  will  be  seen  the  ex- 
tremes of  white  and  black  in  small  quantity  united  by  masses 
of  ever-varying  gradation.  The  extreme  value  of  black  and 
white  in  minute  but  visible  quantity  was  never  better  stated 
than  by  Ruskin  in  the  following  passage,  which,  although  it 
refers  to  color,  states  the  case  as  regards  light  and  shade 
equally  well : — 

"  Next,  respecting  general  tone.  I  said  just  now,  that,  for 
the  sake  of  students,  my  tax  should  not  be  laid  on  black  and 
white  pigments ;  but  if  you  mean  to  be  a  colorist,  you  must 
lay  a  tax  on  them  yourself  when  you  begin  to  use  true  color ; 
that  is  to  say,  you  must  use  them  little,  and  make  of  them 
much.  There  is  no  better  test  of  your  color  tones  being  good 
than  your  having  made  the  white  in  your  picture  precious, 
and  the  black  conspicuous. 

"I  say,  first,  the  white  precious.  I  do  not  mean  merely 
glittering  or  brilliant ;  it  is  easy  to  scratch  white  sea-gulls  out 
of  black  clouds,  and  dot  clumsy  foliage  with  chalky  dew ;  but 
when  white  is  well  managed,  it  ought  to  be  strangely  de- 
licious— tender  as  well  as  bright — like  inlaid  mother-of-pearl 
or  white  roses  washed  in  milk.  The  eye  ought  to  seek  it  for 
rest,  brilliant  though  it  may  be,  and  not  to  feel  it  as  a  space 
of  strange,  heavenly  paleness  in  the  midst  of  the  flashing  of 
the  colors.  This  effect  you  can  only  reach  by  general  depth 
of  middle  tint,  by  absolutely  refusing  to  allow  any  white  to 
exist  except  where  you  need  it,  and  by  keeping  the  white 
itself  subdued  with  gray,  except  at  a  few  points  of  chief  lustre. 

"  Secondly,  you  must  make  the  black  conspicuous.  How- 
ever small  a  point  of  black  may  be,  it  ought  to  catch  the  eye, 
otherwise  your  work  is  too  heavy  in  the  shadow.    All  the 


148  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ordinary  shadows  should  be  of  some  color,  never  black  nor 
approaching  black ;  they  should  be  evidently  and  always  of 
a  luminous  nature,  and  the  black  should  look  strange  among 
them ;  never  occurring  except  in  a  black  object,  or  in  small 
points  indicative  of  intense  shade  in  the  very  centre  of  masses 
of  shadow." 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

CHIARO-OSCURO.  "  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS." 

The  secret  of  success  in  lighting  a  figure  depends  not  so 
much  on  any  given  formula  for  the  adjustment  of  blinds  and 
backgrounds,  as  upon  a  proper  appreciation  of  what  treatment 
is  required  to  give  character  and  individuality  to  heads  that 
differ  so  much  from  one  another  as  those  which  come  under 
the  consideration  of  professional  photographers ;  but  it  will 
be  found  in  practice  that  the  use  of  the  four  white  blinds  de- 
scribed in  the  last  chapter,  and  the  use  of  the  studio  diago- 
nally, will  give  a  very  wide  range  of  effects. 

It  was  an  instruction  from  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Zucchero, 
when  he  was  about  to  paint  her  portrait,  that  he  should  put  no 
shadow  into  her  face.  A  similar  story  is  told  by  Catlin  of 
some  Red  Indians  whom  he  painted.  The  Queen  of  England 
— in  that  period  which  has  been  called  the  Augustan  age, 
when  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  and  Spenser  wrote — and  the 
noble  savages  were  equally  ignorant  of  art  and  its  require- 
ment. The  portrait  photographer  of  the  present  day  will 
occasionally  hear  his  sitter,  on  looking  at  a  proof  of  his  por- 
trait, say,  "  One-half  my  face  is  not  black."  This  is,  no 
doubt,  sometimes  said,  after  the  fashion  of  the  virgin  queen, 
through  ignorance  ;  but  it  will  be  more  often  found  that  the 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  149 

lighting  of  the  head  is  in  fault,  that  the  light  has  been  too 
violent,  the  exposure  too  short,  or  the  intensification  carried 
too  far  ;  and  because  of  either  or  all  of  these  causes  combined, 
the  gradations  in  the  shadows,  as  well  as  the  lights,  are  lost, 
and  there  is  no  transparency  in  the  shadows,  or  balance  of 
light  and  shade. 

The  light  that  illumines  the  head  will,  of  course,  be  that 
which  lights  the  figure;  it  therefore  follows  —  the  light  being 
fixed  —  that  the  only  other  means  of  modifying  the  chiaro- 
oscuro  of  a  portrait  is  by  the  color  of  the  dress  of  the  sitter 
and  accessories,  and  by  the  background.  Of  the  light  and 
shade  of  the  background  I  have  sufficiently  treated  in  Chapter 
XXI.  ;  the  degree  of  importance  given  to  the  accessories  will, 
in  a  great  measure,  both  as  regards  lines  and  light  and  shade, 
establish  the  degree  of  consequence  to  be  given  to  the  head. 
In  giving  great  prominence  to  the  head,  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  be  not  wholly  isolated.  The  accessories  are  the  media, 
which  act  less  as  a  foil  to  the  head  than  as  aids  which  assist  it  to 
keep  its  place  without  impairing  its  force,  as  the  middle  tones 
find  value  and  clearness  only  by  power  of  the  lights  or  the 
strength  of  the  shades. 

The  accessories  should  be  employed  not  only  to  repeat 
forms,  but  also  to  repeat  lights.  If  the  head  were  left  a  white 
space  in  the  midst  of  a  large  mass  of  dark,  the  effect  would  be 
that  of  a  speck,  instead  of  a  mass  of  light.  The  light  of  the 
head  should  be  several  times  echoed  throughout  the  picture  in 
fainter  tones.  There  must  be  no  exact  equality  in  any  of  the 
repetitions,  neither  should  there  be  many,  for  if  the  lights  are 
few  and  unequal,  the  result  will  be  breadth  and  repose ;  if 
many  and  scattered,  there  will  be  confusion.  To  keep  the 
chief  mass  of  light  clear  and  pure  should  be  the  constant  and 
earnest  aim. 

The  outlines  of  the  figure  or  of  the  accessories  should  not 


150  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

be  everywhere  visible.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  effect  is  thin, 
wiry,  and  flat — like  carved  wood  without  the  relief  of  sculp- 
ture. Portions  of  the  objects  represented  should  melt  into  the 
background  and  shadows,  which  method  will  be  found  to  pro- 
duce rich,  soft,  and  mellow  effects. 

The  dress  should  be  of  that  character  best  suited  for  pro- 
ducing harmonious  results.  It  has  been  the  practice  of 
photographers  to  set  their  faces  against  particular  colors 
as  unsuitable,  such  as  white  or  light  blue,  and  always  to 
recommend  black  silk.  It  is  time  this  erroneous  notion  was 
done  away  with,  and  photographers  should  learn  that  if 
they  fail  to  find  white — especially  silk  or  muslin — not  only 
a  possible,  but  a  quite  delightful  color  to  photograph,  they 
have  not  learned  all  that  it  is  possible  for  them  to  know  of 
their  art.  What  can  be  more  beautiful  or  picturesque — con- 
ducive not  only  to  light  and  shade,  but  to  texture — than  a 
muslin  dress  or  jacket,  worn  with  a  silk  skirt  of  any  shade,  so 
that  it  is  darker  than  white?  What  can  be  better  for  a  vig- 
nette than  the  sketchy  lightness  that  is  produced  by  the 
white  dresses  and  light  blue  ribbons  sometimes  worn  by 
children?    And  yet  white  and  blue  are  often  tabooed  ! 

It  is  a  fault,  much  too  common,  that  all  subjects  are  treated 
alike  ;  gentlemen,  ladies,  and  children  are  tarred  with  the 
same  brush,  and  that  often  a  very  black  one  indeed,  when 
they  should  be  separately  studied  and  treated.  The  arrange- 
ment of  intense  lights  and  darks  in  conjunction  (for  instance, 
a  black  velvet  coat  near  the  face),  surrounded  by  middle 
tones  into  which  the  highest  lights  and  deepest  darks  are 
carried,  seems  to  be  a  system  very  suitable  to  the  portraiture 
of  men.  Ladies  and.  children  should  always,  I  think,  be 
treated  in  a  lighter  style,  with  more  refinement  and  deli- 
cacy. 

And  this  brings  me  to  a  subject  which  I  think  should  not 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  151 

be  forgotten  in  a  work  on  photographic  chiaro-oscuro — defini- 
tion and  diffusion  of  focus. 

Some  years  ago  a  number  of  photographs  by  a  lady — many 
of  them  failures  from  every  point  of  view,  but  some  of  them 
very  remarkable  for  their  daring  chiaro-oscuro,  artistic  ar- 
rangement, and,  in  some  instances,  delightful  expression — 
were  brought  prominently  before  the  public.  These  pictures, 
for  the  qualities  I  have  mentioned,  received  the  most  en- 
thusiastic praise  from  artists  and  critics  ignorant  of  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  art,  and  who,  because  of  this  want  of  knowledge 
of  photography,  have  attributed  the  excellences  which  these 
photographs  undoubtedly,  as  masses  of  light  and  shade,  pos- 
sessed, to  their  defects.  These  defects  were,  so  little  defini- 
tion that  it  is  difficult  to  make  out  parts  even  in  the  lights ; 
in  the  shadows  it  often  happens  that  nothing  exists  but  black 
paper ;  so  little  care  whether  the  sitter  moved  or  not  during 
the  enormous  exposure  which  I  have  been  told  was  given 
to  these  pictures,  that  prints  were  exhibited  containing  so 
many  images  that  the  most  careless  operator  would  have 
effaced  the  negative  as  soon  as  visible  under  the  developer ; 
and,  apparently,  so  much  contempt  for  what  we  may  almost 
call  the  proprieties  of  photography,  that  impressions  from 
negatives  scratched  and  stained,  and  from  which,  in  one  or 
two  cases,  the  film  had  been  partly  torn  away,  were  exhibited 
as  triumphs  of  art.  The  arguments  of  the  admirers  of  these 
productions  were,  that  the  excellences  existed  because  of  the 
faults,  and  that  if  they  were  in  focus,  or  more  carefully  ex- 
ecuted, their  merit  would  be  less.  This  is  not  true;  and,  if 
it  were,  I  should  certainly  say,  Let  the  merits  go ;  it  is  not 
the  mission  of  photography  to  produce  smudges.  I  think  the 
artist  herself  felt  this,  for  I  have  seen  later  productions  much 
more  carefully  worked  out.  If  studies  in  light  and  shade 
only  are  required,  let  them  be  done  in  pigment  or  charcoal, 


152  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

with  a  mop,  if  necessary ;  but  photography  is  pre-eminently 
the  art  of  definition,  and  when  an  art  departs  from  its  func- 
I     Hon,  it  is  lost.    I  must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  I 
I     object  to  that  almost  invisible  diffusion  of  focus  produced  by 
spherical  aberration  in  a  lens,  or  by  unscrewing  the  back  lens, 
as  arranged  in  Dallmeyer's  group  combinations;  this  is  a 
|     power  of  immense  value  to  a  photographer,  especially  in  large 
pictures;  for  portraits  larger  than  10  by  8  the  lens  should 
always  be  unscrewed  at  least  one  turn;  by  this  means  all 
parts  are  brought  into  focus  without  visibly  injuring  the  defini- 
tion in  the  usual  plane  of  focus. 

Having  stated  sufficient  to  initiate  the  photographer  into 
the  mysteries  of  chiaro-oscuro,  and  to  induce  him,  I  hope, 
to  a  further  study  of  art,  I  will  conclude  this  portion  of  my 
subject  with  an  extract  from  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  Notes  on 
Fresnoy's  Art  of  Painting,  in  which  he  describes  his  method 
of  study,  and  which  may  be  followed  with  advantage  by  the 
student : 

"  I  shall  here  set  down  the  result  of  the  observations  which 
I  have  made  on  the  works  of  those  artists  who  appear  to  have  j 
best  understood  the  management  of  light  and  shade,  and  who 
may  be  considered  as  examples  for  imitation  in  this  branch  of 
the  art. 

"  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  Tintoret  were  among  the  first 
painters  who  reduced  to  a  system  what  was  before  practised 
without  any  fixed  principle,  and  consequently  neglected 
occasionally.  From  the  Venetian  painters  Rubens  extracted 
his  scheme  of  composition,  which  was  soon  understood  and 
adopted  by  his  countrymen,  and  extended  even  to  the  minor 
painters  of  familiar  life  in  the  Dutch  school. 

"  When  I  was  at  Venice,  the  method  I  took  to  avail  myself 
of  their  principles  was  this :  when  I  observed  an  extraordi- 
nary effect  of  light  and  shade  in  any  picture,  I  took  a  leaf 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  153 


of  my  pocket-book  and  darkened  every  part  of  it  in  the  same 
gradation  of  light  and  shade  as  the  picture,  leaving  the  white 
paper  untouched  to  represent  the  light,  and  this  without  any 
attention  to  the  subject  or  to  the  drawing  of  the  figures.  A 
few  trials  of  this  kind  will  be  sufficient  to  give  the  method  of 
their  conduct  in  the  management  of  their  lights.  After  a  few 
experiments,  I  found  the  paper  blotted  nearly  alike  :  their 
general  practice  appeared  to  be  to  allow  not  above  a  quarter 
of  the  picture  for  the.  light,  including  in  this  portion  both  the 
principal  and  secondary  lights ;  another  quarter  to  be  as  dark 
as  possible  ;  and  the  remaining  half  kept  in  mezzotint  or  half- 
shadow. 

"  Rubens  appears  to  have  admitted  rather  more  light  than 
a  quarter,  and  Rembrandt  much  less,  scarce  an  eighth  j  by 
this  conduct  Rembrandt's  light  is  extremely  brilliant,  but  it 
costs  too  much ;  the  rest  of  the  picture  is  sacrificed  to  this 
one  object.  That  light  will  certainly  appear  the  brightest 
which  is  surrounded  with  the  greatest  quantity  of  shade,  sup- 
posing equal  skill  in  the  artist. 

"By  this  means  you  may  likewise  remark  the  various  forms 
and  shapes  of  those  lights,  as  well  as  the  objects  on  which 
they  are  flung;  whether  a  figure,  or  the  sky,  a  white  napkin, 
animals  or  utensils,  often  introduced  for  this  purpose  only. 
It  may  be  observed,  likewise,  what  portion  is  strongly  relieved, 
and  how  much  is  united  with  its  ground ;  for  it  is  necessary 
that  some  part  (though  a  small  one  is  sufficient)  should  be 
sharp  and  cutting  against  its  ground,  whether  it  be  light  on 
a  dark,  or  dark  on  a  light  ground,  in  order  to  give  firmness 
and  distinctness  to  the  work;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
relieved  on  every  side,  it  will  appear  as  if  inlaid  on  its  ground. 
Such  a  blotted  paper,  held  at  a  distance  from  the  eye,  will 
strike  the  spectator  as  something  excellent  for  the  disposition 
of  light  and  shadow,  though  it  does  not  distinguish  whether 


154  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

it  is  a  history,  a  portrait,  a  landscape,  dead  game,  or  anything 
else ;  for  the  same  principles  extend  to  every  branch  of  the 
art. 

"  Whether  I  have  given  an  exact  account,  or  made  a  just 
division,  of  the  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  the  works  of 
those  painters,  is  of  no  very  great  consequence;  let  every 
person  examine  and  judge  for  himself ;  it  will  be  sufficient  if 
I  have  suggested  a  mode  of  examining  pictures  this  way,  and 
one  means,  at  least,  of  acquiring  the  principles  on  which  they 
wrought." 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

CONCLUSION. 

My  task  is  done.  Beginning  with  the  simplest  elements  of 
composition,  I  have  led  the  student  through  the  mazes  of  this 
often  complicated  subject,  using  the  simplest  language  I  could 
command,  and  often  preferring  to  state  a  great  principle  more 
than  once,  rather  than  risk  that  it  should  not  be  made  per- 
fectly clear  to  the  reader,  preferring  plain,  unvarnished  state- 
ments to  the  wonderful  flights  of  fancy  by  which  art  has  been 
sometimes  made  to  look  so  formidable  to  the  photographer. 
There  is  often  as  much  art  in  knowing  where  to  stop  as  in 
proceeding  in  a  proper  manner ;  and  I  have  especially  en- 
deavored to  avoid  teaching  too  much  —  that  is,  leading  the 
photographer  further  into  the  depths  of  the  subject  than  his 
art  can  follow  ;  as  I  said  in  my  first  chapter,  I  have  endeavored 
to  show  how  the  body  is  constructed,  leaving  the  soul  to 
others.  Babes  thrive  better  on  milk  than  on  curacoa ;  and  I 
have  been  writing  for  the  youngest  student  in  art.  One  of 
the  easiest  modes  of  escaping  from  the  difficulties  of  analysis 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  155 

and  the  perils  of  explanation,  is  to  go  off  into  fits  of  wonder, 
and  talk  mysteriously  of  mystery.  The  fear  of  being  thought 
shallow  has  not  deterred  me  from  being  clear ;  I  have  not 
tried  to  appear  profound  because  I  was  unable  to  fathom  my 
own  ideas  ;  and  I  have  avoided,  as  much  as  possible,  technical 
language,  which  is  sometimes  made  the  refuge  of  obscurity, 
and  the  pompous  sham  which  is  often  required  to  be  taken  for 
depth. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  his  last  discourse,  says:  "I  am 
convinced  that  one  short  essay,  written  by  a  painter,  will  con- 
tribute more  to  advance  the  theory  of  our  art  than  a  thousand 
such  volumes  as  we  sometimes  see,  the  purpose  of  which  ap- 
pears to  be  rather  to  display  the  refinement  of  the  author's 
own  conceptions  of  impossible  practice  than  to  convey  useful 
knowledge  or  instruction  of  any  kind  whatever.  An  artist 
knows  what  is  and  what  is  not  within  the  province  of  his  art 
to  perform,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  forever  teasing  the  poor 
student  with  the  beauties  of  mixed  passions,  or  to  perplex  him 
with  an  imaginary  union  of  excellences  incompatible  with 
each  other."  It  was  with  this  sentence  in  my  mind  that  I 
commenced  this  series  of  papers.  Without  much  previous 
practice  in  writing  a  sustained  series  of  papers,  I  relied  on  my 
knowledge  of  the  subject  for  success  —  knowledge  of  the  few 
simple  but  immutable  laws  of  art  which  I  had  learned  as  a 
painter,  and  found  of  immense  value  in  my  practice  as  a  pho- 
tographer. Thus  much  for  the  matter.  For  the  manner,  I 
must  claim  indulgence.  I  have  written  as  I  should  have 
spoken  to  a  pupil,  not  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  eloquence, 
but  with  the  intention  of  teaching  art.  What  I  have  written 
I  have  practised,  and  what  I  have  practised  I  have  written. 
In  these  articles,  to  quote  Sir  Joshua  again,  "  I  have  in  no 
part  of  them  lent  my  assistance  to  foster  new-hatched,  un- 
fledged opinions,  or  endeavored  to  support  paradoxes,  how- 


156  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ever  tempting  may  have  been  their  novelty,  or  however  in- 
genious I  might,  for  a  minute,  fancy  them  to  be ;  nor  shall  I, 
I  hope,  anywhere  be  found  to  have  imposed  on  the  minds  of 
young  students  declamation  for  argument,  a  smooth  period  for 
a  sound  precept.  I  have  pursued  a  plain  and  honest  method, 
and  I  have  taken  up  the  art  simply  as  I  found  it  exemplified 
in  the  practice  of  the  most  approved  painters." 

So  much  of  myself  and  my  intentions.  Now,  again,  a  few 
more  words  to  the  student,  and  for  the  last  time.  There  is 
something  more  in  art  than  what  I  have  endeavored  to  teach ; 
something  more  than  composition,  chiaro-oscuro,  and  pic- 
torial effect.  Composition  may  be  called  the  skeleton  of  a 
picture,  and  chiaro-oscuro  the  flesh  m  which  that  skeleton  is 
clothed  ;  but  there  is  something  beyond  this.  As  the  living 
body  has  a  living  soul,  so  has  art ;  something  that  the  French 
try-to  express  by  the  phrase  "Je  ne  sais  quoi ;"  that  indefinite 
something  about  which  those  who  know  least  write  most,  be- 
cause it  is  indefinite  and  intangible,  and  about  which  the 
ignorant  world  take  rhapsody  for  knowledge.  Who  can 
penetrate  into  the  dim  regions  of  the  unknown — teach  the 
unreachable?  Who  can  describe  and  reduce  to  lessons  the 
"  know  not  what  "?  Yet  without  this  indefinite,  intangible, 
hidden,  unknown  soul,  a  picture  is  but  a  scientific  perform- 
ance, and  gives  no  more  idea  of  nature  than  does  a  rag  doll 
represent  the  life.  "  So  then,"  it  may  be  said,  "art  comes 
by  inspiration — comes  by  second  nature."  In  its  highest 
phases  it  perhaps  does;  but,  nevertheless,  it  comes  by  laws 
that  it  is  possible  to  note,  and  which  it  is  possible  to  teach. 
Those  laws  govern  the  forms  which  art  takes,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  those  laws  prepares  the  student  for  the  higher  in- 
spiration. 

It  has  been  said,  "  The  poet's  born,  not  made  ;  "  but  Ben 
Jonson,  with  a  higher  and  wider  truth,  and  on  an  occasion 


PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.  157 

when  the  first  proposition  may  have  been  held  to  be  true  in  a 
very  eminent  degree,  in  his  address  "  To  the  memory  of  my 
beloved  Mr.  William  Shakespeare,"  said: 

"  For  though  the  poet's  matter  Nature  be, 
His  Art  doth  give  the  fashion.    And,  that  he, 
Who  casts  to  write  a  living  line,  must  sweat, 
(Such  as  thine  are)  and  strike  the  second  heat 
Upon  the  Muse's  anvil :  turn  the  same, 
(And  himself  with  it)  that  he  thinks  to  frame  ; 
Or  for  the  laurel  he  may  gain  a  scorn, 
For  a  good poefs  made  as  well  as  born." 

And  so  it  is  with  the  artist.  Innate  taste  is  not  sufficient  to 
make  a  painter  or  a  photographer.  As  a  poet  has  to  learn 
the  grammar  of  the  language  in  which  he  writes,  so  must  the 
artist  learn  the  principles  on  which  his  work  is  based.  If  the 
student  trust  to  that  vague  thing  called  taste,  he  trusts  to  a 
broken  reed  ;  let  him  rather  endeavor  to  acquire  that  more 
certain  and  profitable  culture  which  comes  from  study  and 
practice. 

In  conclusion,  I  cannot  do  better  than  impress  upon  my 
reader  the  absolute  necessity,  if  he  wish  to  become  an  artist, 
of  incessant  application,  not  only  to  study,  but  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  results  of  study — pictures.  To  call  yourself 
an  artist  before  you  have  produced  a  picture,  is  but  to  give 
yourself  an  empty  name.  To  be  an  artist,  it  is  necessary  to 
do  something  more  than  take  an  occasional  bad  landscape  or 
portrait  in  photography,  or  to  paint  a  poor  background,  spoil 
a  photograph  with  color,  or  make  crude  sketches  with  the 
brush.  Nothing  beyond  this  can  be  done  without  hard  work. 
The  greatest  compliment  Michael  Angelo  ever  paid  Raphael — 
although  it  is  doubtful  if  he  thought  so  at  the  time — was,  that 
Raphael  did  not  get  so  far  by  his  genius  as  by  his  industry. 
This  industry  means  nothing  else  than  the  success  an  artist 


158  PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

seeks  in  the  unwearied  improvement  of  his  work.  Industry  is 
not  so  much  persevering  activity  or  diligence  in  general  as 
absorption  in  the  one  thing  to  be  accomplished.  The  mark 
should  be  right  before  the  student ;  the  higher  the  better ; 
ambition  is  a  grand  quality,  so  that  it  does  not  degenerate 
into  egotism,  and  is  more  productive  of  good  and  great  work 
than  any  other  desire  of  man.  Strike  high,  and  do  not  be- 
lieve in  failure  ;  work  incessantly  and  rightly,  and  good  work 
will  be  the  result. 


THE  END. 


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GRAPHY.—By  W.  T.  Wilkinson.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  Ed- 
ward L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  The  most  practical  work  extant  on  these 
subjects.    (Send  for  detailed  contents  list.)    Price,  post-paid,  $3.00. 

ESSAYS  ON  ART.— Composition,  Light  and  Shade,  and  the  Educa- 
tion of  the  Eye. — By  John  Burnet.  Three  priceless  volumes  in 
one,  with  150  illustrations,  lithographed  in  facsimile  from  original 
costly  edition.    $4.00,  post-paid. 

THE  BOOK  OF  THE  LANTERN.— By  T.  C.  Hepworth.  The  most 
practical  handbook  to  lantern  work  so  far  issued.  278  pages.  Bound 
in  cloth.    Price,  $2.00,  post-paid. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  MOSAICS.— An  annual  record  of  Photographic  pro- 
gress. Edited  by  Edward  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  Issued  every  Novem- 
ber ;  now  in  its  twenty-eighth  year.  Universally  acknowledged  to  be 
a  most  helpful  annual.    Price,  paper,  50c;  cloth  bound,  $1.00. 

VOGEL'S  PROGRESS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  SINCE  1879.— Gives 
special  consideration  to  the  Chemistry  of  Photography.  With  72  illus- 
trations.   Price  $3.00. 


9 


THE 

j&ovill  \  Adanj^  Companij, 

423  Broome  Street,  New  York  City, 

SUCCESSORS  TO  THE 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  DEPARTMENT 

— OF  THE — 

Scovill  Manufacturing  Company . 

Are  Manufacturers,  Importers  of  and  Dealers  in 

AN  UNEQUALED  VARIETY  OF 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  GOODS, 

EMBRACING 

Every  Requisite  of  the 

Practical  Photographer, 

Professional  and  Amateur. 


PUBLICATION  DEPARTMENT. 

Publishers  of  "THE  SCOVILL  PHOTOGRAPHIC  SERIES" 
(40  publications),  the  "Photographic  Times  Annual,"  etc.,  etc. 

Latest  Catalogue  of  Photographic  Books  and  Albums,  and  a 
copy  of  "  How  to  Make  Photographs"  sent  free  on  application. 


W.  IRVING  ADAMS, 

President  6°  Treasurer. 

10 


H.  LITTLEJOHN, 

Secretary. 


• 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


3  3125  00736  7523 


